
nbm VE no* 
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PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR 

OF THE £jJ j£ . £L 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 

IN CONNECTION WITH 

THE LAWS OF MATTER AND OF THOUGHT, 
BSBXJCEB FROM THE 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE ALONE, 

WITHOUT REGARD TO THE 

©frammattcal ^tintipltz of other ffonstte*, 

TO WHICH IS ADDED 

A HIEROGLYPHICAL KEY, 

COMPOSED OF LETTERS, FIGURES AND ALGEBRAICAL SIGNS, 

SECOND EDITION, 
AMENDED, ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. 



BY E. SMITH. 




"Time orerthrews the illusions of opinion, but confirms* tfte decision* 
of nature." 



-♦ tt*@Q**« — 



PITTSBURGH: 
PUBLISHED BY LUKE LOOMIS; 

BALTIMORE ARMSTRONG & PLASKITT. 

18 3 5. 



■v-v 



»*1 



%& 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1835, by 
E. Smith, in the Clerk's office of the District Court of the 
Western District of Pennsylvania. 



*^—S JZ l7 



Pittsburgh, 
White & Grant, pra. 



PREFACE. 



The author of the following pages, deems it due to himself, 
to give the reasons which induced him to attempt authorship, 
in a department of science not inseparably connected with 
his vocation as a Christian minister. 

He was disabled, by a providential affection, from pursuing 
the regular duties of his calling, and found it necessary, for 
the support of a helpless and dependent family, to commence 
instructing youth. In this employment, he had an opportunity 
of testing the practical results of what he conceived to be the 
true principles of English grammar; and found by present- 
ing those principles directly to the mind, unencumbered by 
the labored classifications of the old grammars, he could im- 
part a more perfect knowledge of grammar to his pupils, 
and that too, in much less time, than he could by pursuing 
the usual course of instruction. He also found, that the la- 
bor of memorising was greatly abridged, by the conciseness 
of his classifications; and his mnemonical chart so assisted 
the memory, that the subject could be presented to the mind 
immediately, without any previous memorising. 

The success of these efforts was so apparent, that he yield- 
ed to the solicitations of his friends, and embodied what he 
conceived to be the true principles of the English language, 
and an imperfect classification of these principles. This was 
done for the benefit of his own pupils, and such as might.be 
instructed by him. 

With the aid of this imperfect text book and chart, he 
found that in twenty lectures of one hour and a half each, he 
could impart to adult pupils, a more scientific and practicaJ 



IV PREFACE. 

knowledge of grammar than is generally obtained, by the 
usual course of instruction, in months or years. 

Some, who became acquainted with the Philosophical 
Grammar, commenced teaching with similar success; and 
the first edition, which was small, was taken up much sooner 
than the author desired. All who took the trouble to make 
themselves acquainted with the Philosophical Grammar, ex- 
pressed their entire conviction, that it was greatly superior 
to any and every other system of English Philology, which 
claims public attention. They admired it no less for the full 
and clear manner in which the principles of grammatical 
sciencewere developed,than for the concise and consistent clas- 
sification of those principles. 

These persons, together with those who had adopted it as 
a text book, urged the author to prepare and publish a second 
edition, which is here presented to the public. 

The author desired more time to prepare this edition than 
he could command, and also to bring it through the press. But 
the unexpected call for the first edition made it necessary 
that this should make its appearance at the time it does. 

These are the reasons which induced the author to at- 
tempt the compilation of this work. Should it be instrumen- 
tal in elucidating the principles of grammatical science, and 
increase a love of philosophical knowledge, he will be more 
than compensated for all his toil. 



INTRODUCTION, 



Reason is the distinguishing excellence of man, and lan- 
guage is the medium, through which its operations are de- 
veloped. How important then, must be the instrument on 
which so many millions depend, in all the transactions of this 
life. But its importance is greatly increased, by the fact, 
that, through language man obtains a knowledge of his 
Creator, and of the account he must render at the great day. 

The design of this work is to explain the principles of 
languages, as the medium through which the mind commu- 
nicates and receives ideas. And to give such a classifica- 
tion of letters and words, as the peculiarities of the English 
tongue require. 

The author is sensible, the Philosophical Grammar will 
oppose, in the department of English literature, the wisdom 
of the learned, and the practice of years. It would ill be- 
come him to pretend to equal competition with many who 
spent their labors and lives in the same important field, or in 
contemplating their important and difficult undertaking, to 
withhold from them the tribute justly due to their characters. 
But beyond the present classification of the English language, 
the Philosophical Grammar does not conflict with learning 
and practice, except in a few instances. The principles con- 
tended for, are in accordance with the principles of univers- 
al grammar, as developed in the grammars of the principal 
ancient and modern languages. 

Language is the medium through which intelligent beings 
communicate their ideas; and as the operations of mind are 
the same in all, the medium through which those operations 
are communicated must be the same in all its fundamental 
principles. These principles are the same in all languages; 
for the same object is to be effected in all — which is, to com- 
municate the operations of mind; and they are more or less 
developed in the grammars of different languages. Some 

1* 



Vl INTRODtTCTIOK. 

grammars develope more of these principles than others, be- 
cause they are more philosophical. 

These principles may be considered under four general 
heads; First, The classification of letters, as the representa- 
tives of sounds; Second, The classification of words, as the 
representatives of ideas; Third, Variations or declensions of 
words, and Fourth, The classifications of words, and the in- 
fluence they have over each other. 

1. Sounds are divided into two general classes, vowel and 
consonant sounds. These divisions belong to all languages. 
These sounds unite and form what are called diphthongs — im- 
pure vowel sounds. Some languages have more sounds than 
others. These sounds unite and form words; and though 
the sounds of different languages are nearly the same, many 
of them the very same, the words sound very differently* 
because the sounds are differently united in those words. A 
perfect alphabet would have a character to represent every in- 
divisible sound in the language. 

This work contains a complete classification of all the 
sounds in the language, and divides the letters, which repre- 
sent those sounds* accordingly; with all the mutations and 
elisions of the sounds represented by the letters. The prin- 
ciples which govern the location of the accent, and the divi- 
sion of words into syllables, are also given. The pronuncia- 
tion of the language according to analogy, is so fully devel- 
oped, that those who pay proper attention to the principles of 
Orthoepy, may be enabled to determine the accented sylla- 
ble of a word, and the sound of every letter in it, without the 
aid of a dictionary. 

2. Words are the signs of ideas, and there must be as 
many classes of words as there are classes of ideas. And as 
ideas are the images of things, in the mind, there must be as 
many classes of ideas as there are classes of things. And as 
things are the same, and ideas the same in all languages, 
every language must have the same general classification of 
words. This would be the case, if the philosophical princi- 
ple of classification obtained. There are but two distinct 
classes of things, subsistences and actions. These would di- 
vide words into nouns and verbs, the true philosophical di- 
vision of them. 

These two general divisions are subdivided into other di- 
visions, based upon the manner in which their meanings are 
signified* Some grammarians make more, others less of 



INTRODUCTION. VII 

those divisions. These divisions are made for practical 
utility. 

This work contains the usual divisions except the article. 
This division is rejected, because there is no ground, either 
philosophical or practical for such a distinction. The words 
classed as articles being nothing but definitive adnouns, [ad- 
jectives] in their nature, origin and use. In this the philo- 
sophical agrees with the Latin philologists. But all words 
being either nouns or verbs, in their essential and primary 
signification, are clearly distinguished in the subdivisions, and 
their claims to nominal or verbal alliance fairly stated. 

The usual subdivisions of the pronoun, are rejected, be- 
cause the words denominated relative and adjective pronouns, 
except who, never stand for nouns. They are mere adnouns, 
and understood better when classed with adnouns, than they 
can possibly be classed with words used differently. This short- 
ens the students course, without diminishing his means of 
knowledge, or enervating the vigor of his mind, by distinc- 
tions, which he cannot comprehend. Distinctions which 
have no foundation in nature, practice or -peculiarity. 

3. Declension in language, is some variation in the form 
of words. Some languages are more declinable than others. 
The more highly a language is improved, the more declin- 
able it is. Words are varied by affixing or prefixing frag-* 
merits of words to them. The words added contain the ad- 
ditional significations of the varied words. The added signi- 
fications are contained in the affixed or prefixed fragments. 
These significations were expressed, in the early stage of 
language, by separate words. We now express by one 
word what was formerly expressed by two. 

Declension is one of the ways in which language was con- 
tracted, to facilitate the progress of communication 

These variations form the cases of nouns and adjectives; the 
persons, moods, tenses and participles of verbs, and the com- 
parisons of adnouns and adverbs — They require classification. 
No two languages, perhaps, have the same number of varia- 
tions, and therefore, do not require the same classification. 
Philologists err by overlooking this fundamental principle, 
and by giving one language the classification of another more 
or less declinable. This is particularly the case in English 
philology. 

English philologists give nouns cases; they might with as 
much propriety give cases to adnouns, (like the Latin and 



VIII INTRODUCTION. 

Greek grammarians do,) neither having any variations to 
denote objective relations. To make rules to govern the 
cases of nouns, is forming laws to compel obedience, where 
disobedience is impossible; and perplexing the student with 
groundless and incomprehensible distinctions — distinctions at 
variance with the settled practice of general grammar. 

What are called nouns in the possessive case, in the old 
grammars are classed with adnouns. In this the Philosoph- 
ical Grammar conforms to the practice of the Hebrew. But 
the greatest departure from this fundamental principle, is in 
the classification of the verb. 

The verbs, in the learned languages, are very much varied • 
In the English very little. The Greek verb has about five 
hundred variations; the Latin about one hundred and sixty; 
the English only five, in regular verbs. The voices, moods, 
tenses, supines and gerunds take up all the variations of the 
verbs, in the learned languages. But the English has no va- 
riation for voice, and but one for mood, one for tense, two 
for person and one for the present participle, making in all 
six jfonws, in regular verbs. These six forms are made, in 
the old grammars to sustain the weight of the Latin classi- 
fication of mood, tense and voice. This is the great defect 
of those grammars. 

The Latin verb can sustain this extensive classification, 
yea, requires it; but the English can not — the Latin verb 
has one hundred and sixty variations to sustain this classifi- 
cation, the English but five. The introduction of the Latin 
moods and tenses into English, not only embarrasses the stu- 
dent, increases his labor, but prevents him from obtaining a 
correct knowledge of the foundation of mood and tense, and 
metamorphoses English verbs into an inexplicable combina- 
tion of words, having meanings and no meanings, called 
auxiliary combinations. 

In" this work the verb is treated as it is in the learned lan- 
guages. It has as many moods and tenses, as it has forms 
for mood and tense, and no more. And as the English Verb 
has no variation for voice, the passive verb or voice is reject- 
ed, on the ground that the English verb has no such voice. 
This renders the student's course short and easy, and gives 
him a more perfect knowledge of the verb, in all its uses; 
and also a knowledge of the true ground of voice, mood and 
tense, in the learned languages, which cannot fail to facilitate 
his progress in studying them. 



INTRODUCTION. IX 

The English language, having but few variations in its 
words, requires but a concise classification of those variations; 
and the classifications in this work are adapted to the pecu- 
liar structure of the language, without regard to the gram- 
mars of other tongues. This greatly abridges the student's 
course; facilitates his progress, and acquaints him with the 
true ground of grammatical classification — developes to his 
mind the science of grammatical arrangement. 

4. Words are placed together to represent a succession of 
ideas, and ought to be placed as nearly as possible, in the or- 
der in which the ideas arise in the mind, that the mind, to 
which they are present, may conceive them in their true con- 
nection. The English language is not, perhaps, excelled in 
this respect by any language ancient or modern. 

This work treats particularly of the order in which words 
should be placed in sentences, and makes Position a distinct 
part of Syntax. 

Words are often omitted, because the ideas expressed are 
still present in the mind, having been previously expressed, 
in some other association of words. This practice is ex- 
plained, and rules are given to regulate it. 

Words in their associations have certain influences on 
each other. Nouns often become adnouns, and words take 
different forms by having a connection with other words. 
This is called government. The Philosophical Grammar 
differs from the old grammars, and also from the grammars 
of the learned languages on this subject. But although it 
differs in this particular, the same object is effected — 
grammatical accuracy, and the true cause assigned which pro- 
duces the effect. Grammarians generally admit that prepo- 
sitions govern objective words. I say generally, for some of 
the brightest stars in the literary firmament have denied it; 
and Horne Tooke, whose claims to the first rank of phil- 
ologists, and to the first in that rank, are not denied by any, 
not only denied the government of prepositions, but their 
existence as a distinct part of speech. There can be no 
government without a governor, and no governor can gov- 
ern without exerting some influence to affect the subjects 
governed, and no word can represent the influence or action 
of a governor, which does not represent action or influence of 
some kind. These are self-evident, and incontrovertible 
truths. And as prepositions express no actions or influences 
exerted by agents or governors; it is impossible in the na- 



X INTRODUCTION. 

ture of things, that they can govern, unless we adopt the 
sentiment of a late writer on grammar, " What is false in 
fact may, nevertheless, be true in grammar " It is true that 
nouns and pronouns coming after prepositions, are in the ob- 
jective case or relation; but it is also true that they are 
affected by the action of verbs, which precede the preposi- 
tions. The preposition does not affect the noun, but the verb 
affects it. This is true in all languages. 

This leads to a mistake of still greater magnitude; that 
many verbs have no objective words; that they express 
neither action nor influence. These definitions are in direct 
opposition to the evidence of our senses, in many cases; at 
variance with facts as they exist in nature, and do all that 
can be done to prevent the mind from conceiving the true 
connection of cause and effect. An attempt is made in this 
work, to present this subject in a true light, and to give such 
a classification of this part of grammar as shows the true 
connection between cause of effect, without which there can 
be no just conceptions of accountability, the foundation of all 
social and moral order. 

If the classification and principles hitherto pursued, are 
founded in error, it is of great importance, in a national 
point of view, that they should be laid aside. In such an at- 
tempt many opposers must be expected; some from preju- 
dice of inculcation, and others from the still stronger mo- 
tive of direct self-interest. On the other hand, a portion will 
certainly be found, who are disposed to act in the spirit of can- 
dor and free investigation; and who will consider it a more im- 
portant question, whether professed opinions are true or 
false, than whether they are new or old. 

Limited, therefore, as the circulation of this volume may 
be, it will doubtless meet with two sorts of readers. Some 
will examine for themselves, whether its principles are found- 
ed in truth, and its deductions fairly drawn. They will 
either detect their fallacy, or candidly adopt them, if they 
find them correct. Others will only inquire whethe'r the 
ideas advanced agree with what they were told before, or 
read in supposed orthodox books. These persons are not ex- 
pected to reason, but to denounce, when they suspect it to 
vary from what they take for true. 

If the principles here faintly sketched, should be found in- 
controvertible, the last resort will be to say they are unim- 
portant, and that the former manner of teaching, will an- 



INTRODUCTION. XI 

swer as well, or even be more easy for learners to compre- 
hend. Why, in language more than in any other science, 
should error be plainer than truth? Can perversions promote 
knowledge, or form a body of useful instruction? Such in- 
consistencies would at once be rejected in every other de- 
partment of tuition. Why then retain them in language, 
which is the instrument of all? 

Whatever is opposed to philosophical correctness, will 
prove as mischievous and inapplicable in practice, as it is 
incongruous in theory. 

In a book designed for the use of schools, extensive proofs 
and illustration are not to be expected. But it is hoped that 
those given, may, at least, produce a desire to investigate 
this subject. Those, who may be inclined to prosecute an 
inquiry into the philosophy of language, are referred to the 
invaluable Diversions of Purley, 

The "Hieroglyphical Key" is an arrangement of great 
importance. It so assists the memory, that the subject can 
be presented to the mind immediately. And the pupil com- 
mence parsing understandingly in a few hours. By it a sin- 
gle teacher can teach one or two hundred pupils at once, 
with as much advantage to the pupils, as though he had but 
ten. 

Small classes of adults can be taught without the "Key" 
nearly as advantageously as with it. But junior pupils, and 
large classes derive incalculable advantages from it. 



SYNOPSIS 

OP THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place or thing; as 7 
James, York, Wisdom. 

2. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and gen- 
erally to avoid the tiresome frequency of the same word; as,» 
Fulton was an eminent engineer; he invented steamboats; we 
owe much to him* 

3. An adnoun is a word added to a noun, to describe or 
define it; or, to another adnoun, to modify its meaning. 

4. A verb is a word which signifies action; as, the farm- 
ers plow their fields; clouds shed rain; the miser dies and 
leaves his gold* 

5. A. participle is a word which is derived from a verb* 
and partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adnoun* 

6. Adverbs are contractions of words or sentences, added 
to verbs or participles, to modify their meaning; as, she 
writes correctly; he is running swiftly. They are either 
principal or helping; as, she writes very correctly; he is 
running very swiftly. 

7. Prepositions are words used to show the relation of two 
or more objects to each other, and in construction have pre- 
ceding and succeeding objective words; as, He threw the 
stone into the water. 

8. Conjunctions are words used to connect sentences; join-* 
ing two or more simple sentences into one compound sentence; 
as, he is happy, because he is good. 

9. Interjections are words, which express a sudden emo- 
tion of the mind; as, oh! alas! 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



Question 1. What is grammar? 

Answer. Grammar is an explanation of the 
principles of speech, and teaches the right pro- 
nunciation and use of words, (a) 

Q,. 2. How may grammar be divided? 

A. Into universal and particular. 

Q. 3. What is universal grammar? 

A. Universal grammar is an explanation of 
the principles of speech, in their application to 
all languages. 

Q. 4. What is particular grammar? 

A. Particular grammar is the explanation 
of the principles of speech, in their application 
to a particular language. (1) 

Q. 5. How is grammar divided? 

A. Into five principal parts — Orthoepy, 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax and 
Prosody. 

EXPLANATORY NOTES. 
(1) "Grammar, as a science, treats of the natural con- 
nexion between ideas, and words which are the signs of 
ideas, and develops the principles which are common to all 
languages. These principles are not arbitrary, nor subject 
to change, but fixed and permanent; being founded on facts 
and distinctions established by nature." 

Webster's Grammar. 

CRITICAL NOTES. 

(a) The word grammar is derived from the Greek word gramma, 
which signifies a letter: hence this word becomes the name of those 
principles collectively taken, which show the use of letters from their 
^alphabetical stations into words and sentences. 
2 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR- 

PAST 1. 



ORTHOEPY, 

Q. 6. What is Orthoepy? 

A. Orthoepy is that part of grammar which 
teaches the organic structure and sounds of 
letters, their constructive influence on each 
other, and the true pronunciation of words. (&) 

Q. 7. What is a letter? 

A. A letter is the representative of a simple 
elementary sound, and the first principle or least 
part of a word. 

Q. 8. How many letters has the English language, and 
how are they divided? 

A. Twenty-six; divided into vowels and con- 
sonants. 

Q. 9. Which are the vowels, and how are their sounds 
formed? 

A. -4, c, t, o, u. — Their sounds are formed 
by the voice alone. They are divided into 
pure and impure. A 9 e 9 o, are pure; i and w, 
impure. The first are called pure, because 
their sounds are made by the voice without any 
aid from the organs of articulation; the last 
impure, because the voice is slightly aided in 
pronouncing them by the organs of articulation. 

Q. 10. Which are the consonants, and how are their 
sounds formed? 



(b) The Hebrews call any variation in the pronunciation or sound of 
a noun, produced by its connection with another noun, the construct 
state. In this sense the word is used in the above definition. Da'- 
bar is a Hebrew word, and signifies word. Da' bar is put into its con- 
struct state by being changed into Deba'r. This word, thus construct- 
ed, means word of: hence Debar Elohim are equal to the English 
phrase, God's word, or word of God, 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



A. B, c, d,f, g, h, j f k, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, 

w, x, y, z. But w and y are only consonants 
when they begin a word or syllable; in any 
other situation they are vowels. Their sounds 
are formed by different constructions of the 
organs of speech. 

Q. 11. How are they divided, and what are the reasons 
for those divisions? 

A. They are divided as follows: b, p, to and 
y are labials, because their sounds are made 
by the aid of the lips; f and v are hissing lab- 
ials, because their sounds are made by placing 
the upper teeth on the lower lip, accompanied 
by hissing; d, j, I, t and soft g are dentals, be- 
cause their sounds are made by placing the 
tongue on the upper teeth; It, s, x, z and soft 
c are hissing dentals, because their sounds are 
formed in the same way, accompanied by hiss- 
ing; n and m are nasals, because their sounds 
are made through the nose; k, q, r and hard 
g and c arp gutturals, because their sounds are 
formed in the throat. They are still further 
divided, because of the nature of their sounds. 
L, m, n and r are liquids; p,f, t, s and k are 
sharps; b, v, d, z and g are fiats; d, b, z, c 
and s are aspirate consonants. And they are 
divided by some authors into mutes and semi- 
vowels; but this division serves no scientific 
purpose. The above divisions- are indispensa- 
ble to a knowledge of Orthoepy. 

Q. 12. Does each letter represent a single elementary 
sound? 

A. Some letters have several sounds. In 
some situations they stand for one, and mothers 



4 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 

for another of these sounds; and some letters are 
frequently silent. The English language has 
thirty-eight elementary sounds, represented by 
its twenty-six letters. The vowels have sixteen 
sounds, and the consonants twenty-two. (c) 

Q. 13. How many sounds has each vowel? 

A. A has four sounds; a long sound; as, in 
fate; a flat sound; as, in yard; a broad sound; 
as, in ally and a short sound; as, in hat. A 
takes the sound of short i; as, in band-age, pro- 
nounced ban-dij; the sound of short u; as, in 
li-ar, pronounced li-ur, and the sound of short 
o; as, in wan, pronounced won. 

E has two sounds; a long sound; as, in me f 
and a short sound; as, in met. E takes the 
sound of short i; as, mdu-el, pronounced du-il; 
the sound of short u; as,inba-ker, pronounced 
ba-kur, and e in some situations is silent; as, in 
fa-ble, sto-len, &c, pronounced fa-bt, sto-ln. 

I has two sounds; a long sound; hs,inpine^ and 
a short sound;as, in pin. I takes the. sound of 
long e; as, in ma-chine, pronounced ma-sheen? 
the sound of short e; as, in cir-cling, pronounced 
cer-kling, and the sound of short %t; as, in Jnrd y 
pronounced burd. 

(c) Fourteen of the vowel sounds are simple, and two compound- The 
diphthongal sounds oi and ou are the compound sounds. The conso- 
nant sounds are all simple. All the consonants have distinct sounds 
but c and x; they have no sounds of their own. C always sounds like 
k or *, and x like ks, gz or z. Th have a sound of their own; as, in 
their; and sh; as, in shut. T has a sound in nature and similar words, 
very different from its usual sound, or the sound of any other consonant., 
This soundis generally represented by tsh; but these letters represent not 
this sound. It can only be learned from voice, which is indeed the only 
way that a true knowledge of the sounds of language can be obtained. 
Those who are not able to give the sounds of the language, separately 
and independently of the names of the letters, are not prepared to teacfe 
orthoepy as it ought to be taught. 



MltOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



O has four sounds; a long sound; as, in no; 
a close sound; as, in do; a broad sound; as, in 
nor , and a short sound; as, in not. O takes the 
sound of short u; as, in metk-od, pronounced 
meth-ud; and o is silent; as, in ba-con, pronoun- 
ced ba-cn. (d) 

27 has three sounds; a long sound; as, in re- 
fute; a short sound; as, in but, and a middle 
sound; as, in fidl. ZJsome times takes the sound 
of close o) as, in cra-el, pronounced croo-el. — 
O and i have a diphthongal sound; as, in joint, 
and o and u; as, in sound. 

Wandy where used as vowels have no sounds 
of their own. IF in some places takes the sound 
of long u; as, in dew, where the e is silent, and w 
takes the sound of long u. At other times the 
sound of close o; as, in brew, where e is silent, 
and w takes the sound of close o. Y, when it 
is a vowel, takes the sound of i; as, in type, and 
in either long or short, 

Q. 14. What is a diphthong? 

A. A diphthong is the union of two vowels 
having but one sound; as, the o and i in voice. 
Some diphthongs are pure, others impure. 

(d) O has only three sounds of its own. The third sound of o and the 
third sound of a are the same. O in corn and a in fall have the very 
same sound. But as Mr. Walker. gave ofour sounds, I follow his clas- 
sification, to agree with his dictionary, the best standard of pronuncia- 
tion extant. But I wish it distinctly understood, that o has but three 
sounds; that the third sound of o is the sound of broad a. Had Mr. 
Walker been able to give the vowel sounds separately by voice, he 
would not have fallen into this mistake. Separating the elementary 
sounds of language from each other, and giving them separately by 
voice, was found necessary, by the missionaries, to form alphabets for 
the unwritten languages of savage nations. This very important im~ 
provement is a fruit of missionary enterprise, which opens si wide door 
of blessing to the human race. 

2* 



6 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAS* 

Q. 15. What is a pure diphthong? 

A. A pure diphthong is one in which each 
vowel has a sound, yet so closely united that 
the sounds cannot be separated; as, o and u in 
wound, 

Q. 16. What is an impure diphthong? 

A. An impure diphthong is one in which 
but one vowel sound is heard. This sound, in 
some words, is the sound of one of the vowels in 
the diphthong, and in others, the sound of a 
vowel not in it. 

Q. 17. What is a triphthong? 

A. A triphthong is the union of three vowels 
having but one sound, either simple or com- 
pound. 

A. 

Q. 18. Where has a its long sound? 

A. Where it is followed by a consonant and 
mute e; as, in hate, and where it ends a syllable 
under accent; as, in ba-ker. 

Q. 19. Where has a its flat sound? 

A. Where it is followed by r and any other 
consonant; as, in bar-ter, or by r in a monosyl- 
lable; as, in far. A has also a flat sound where 
it is followed by If, he, Im or th; as, in calf 
salve, calm and pat h. 

Q. 20. Where has a its broad sound? 

A. Where it is followed by //, Id, Is, U or 
Ik; as, in all, scald, false, salt and talk. 

Q. 21. Where has a its short sound? 

A. Where it is followed by any consonant 
but r; as, in hat, or where it ends a syllable not 
under accent; as, in di-a-dem. A has also a 



rfllLOSOPHlCAL GRAMMAR. 7 

short sound where it is followed by rr or sin- 
gle r and a vowel; as, in mar-ry, a-rid. 

Q. 22. Where does a take the sound of short i? 

A. Where it is followed by ge in a final, un- 
accented syllable; as, in bond-age. 

Q. 23. Where does a take the sound of short o? 

A. Where it is preceded by w or qu, and 
followed by a consonant; as, in wan, squab. 

Q. 24. Where does a take the sound of short u? 

A. Where it is preceded by the accent and 

followed by r; as, in schol-ar. 

Q. 25. What sound is interposed between flat a and the 
gutturals? 

A. The consonant sound of y; as, in gar-den, 
pronounced gyar-den. 

E. 

Q. 26. Where has e its long sound? 

A. Where it is followed by a consonant and 
mute e; as, in rep-leie, and where it ends a sylla- 
ble; as, in de-ist, a-the-ist. 

Q. 27. Where has e its short sound? 

A. Where it is followed by a consonant; as, in 
com-pel. 

Q. 28. Where doe3 e take the sound of short if 
A. Where it is followed by I or t> in an un- 
accented syllable; as, in du-el, trum-pet. 

Q. 29. Where does e take the sound of short u? 

A. Where it is followed by r, in a final un- 
accented syllable; as, in ca-per, and where final 
€ is preceded by cr, gr, or tr, it is transposed 
and takes t he sound of short u) as, in a~cre, mau- 
gre, cen-tre. 



S PHILOSOPHICAL GIlAJUiAR. 

Q. 30. Where is c silent? 

A. Where it is final and preceded by b and 
another consonant; as, in a*ble, and where it is 
followed by I or n in a final unaccented sylla- 
ble; as, in sto-len, rev-el. 

Q. 31. Where does e lengthen the preceding vowel? 

A. Where it ends a syllable, and is preceded 
by a single consonant; as, in hate. hate-ful. 

I. 

Q. 32. Where has i its long sound? 

A. Where it is under accent, and is followed 
by a consonant and mute e; as, in re-cline; 
where it ends a syllable under accent; as, in ci- 
der; where it is followed by gn, nd, Id, gh or 
ght; as, in en-sign, find, tvild, sigh or might; 
where it forms the first syllable of a word; as, 
i-de-a; where it ends the first syllable of a word 
and is followed by a vowel under accent; as, in 
di-ur-nal. It is also long in the commencing 
syllables, hi, ehi, cli, pri, cri, tri, and //; as, in 
bi-ba-cioiis, clii-rnr-gic, cli-mac-ter, pri-mc- 
val,cri-bra'tion,iri-an-gle and li-ba-tion, and 
where it is followed by ze in the final syllable of 
words of many syllables; as, in a-pos-ta-tize. It 
is generally long where it is followed by a conso- 
nant and mute e, in a final syllable under the 
secondary accent; as, in er-e-mite. 

Q. 33. Where has i its short sound? 

A. Where it is followed by any consonant 
except r; as, in bit-ter; where it ends a syllable 
not under accent; as, in hap-pi-ness; where it 
is followed by a consonant and mute e, in a final 
unaccented syllable; as, in doc-trine, a-bu-$iv>e. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



It is short in the commencing syllables, ci, di,fi, 
mi, phi, ph plh r h s i an( l vh as > m ci-vil-ian, 
di-van, ji-del-i-ty, mi-nor-i-ty, phi-lo-so-phy, 
pi-las-ter, pli-ca-tion, ri-gid-i-ty, si-mil-i- 
tuck, vi-cin-i-ty, and where it is followed by 
an aspirate consonant; as, in vis-ion. I is also 
short where it is followed by ve, in the last syl- 
lable of words of many syllables; as, in con-sec- 
u-tive. 

Q. 34. Where does i take the sound of long e? 

A. Where it is followed by a consonant and 
mute e, in the final syllable of words derived 
from the French; as, in ma-chine. 

Q. 35. Where does i take the sound of short e? 

A. Where it is followed by r, and the suc- 
ceeding syllable begins with a consonant; as, in 
cir-cuit. 

Q. 36. Where does t take the sound of short it? 

A. Where it is followed by r and another 
consonant, in monosyllables; as, in bird, first. 

Q. 37. What sound is interposed between long i and tlw 
gutturals? 

A. The consonant sound of y; as* in kind, 
pronounced kyind. 

O. 

Q, 38. Where has o its long sound? 

A. Where it is followed by a consonant and 
mute e; as, in stone; where it ends a syllable; as, 
in mo-tion, and where it is followed by //, Id, 
or It; as, in toll, fold, colt. O has generally a 
long sound where it is followed by mb, rth, ree, 
rd, rge, rt, st, rk or gue; as, in comb, forth s 
force, ford, forge, fort, host, pork, rogue* 



10 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAK. 

Q. 39. Where has o its close sound? 

A. Where it is double; as, in moon, soon, 
&c. 

Q. 40. Where has o its broad sound? 

A. Where it is followed by r and another 
consonant; as, in for-mal. 

Q. 41. Where has o its short sound? 

A. Where it is followed by any consonant 
but r; as, in pot; and o is also short followed by 
rr or single r and a vow r el; as, in hor-rid, flor-id. 

Q. 42. Where has o the sound of short u? 

A. O has the sound of short u where it is fol- 
lowed by c, eh, d, I, m, p, r, t or me, in a final 
unaccented syllable; as, in meth-od. 

Q. 43. Where is o silent? 

A. O is silent preceded by c, d, k, p, t or s f 
and followed by n, in a final unaccented sylla- 
ble; as, in barton, lesson. 

IL 

Q. 44. Where has u its long sound? 

A, U has its long sound, followed by a conso- 
nant and mute e, as in refute. JJ has also its 
long sound ending a syllable; as, in sin-gu-hr. 

Q. 45. W'here has u its short sound? 

A. Where it is followed by a consonant; as, 
in but-ter. 

Q. 46. Where has u its middle sound? 

A. JJ has its middle sound in full and some 
other words, but this sound of u is not deter- 
mined by any principle or rule. 

Q. 47. Where dges u take the sound of close o? 

A. Where it ends a syllable, and is preceded 
by r; as, in cru-eh 



PHILOSOPHICAL GKA30IAR. II 

Y. 

Q. 48. Where has y the sound of long i? 

A. Y has the sound of long i, followed by a 
consonant and mute e; as, in type, and where it 
ends a syllable under accent; as, in cy-cle. 

Q. 49. Where has y the sound of short i? 

A. Where it is followed by a consonant; as, 
in sys-tem, and where it ends a syllable not un- 
der accent; as, in la-dy. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

AI. — Q. 50. What sounds have ai? 

A. Where they are under accent they have 
the sound of long a; as, in pain; and where they 
are not under accent they have the sound of 
short a; as, in cap-tain. 

ATI. — Q. 51. What sounds have au? 

A. Where they are followed by gh or n, they 
have the sound of flat a; as, in laugh, aunt, 
&c, and where they are not followed by gh 
or n, the sound of broad a; as, in de-fraud. 

AW. — Q. 52. What sound have aw? 

A. The sound of broad a; as, in law. 

AY.— Q. 53. What sounds have ayl 

A. The sound of long a, where they end a 
syllable under accent; as, in day, delay, and the 
sound of long e or short i, where they end a syl- 
lable not under accent; as, in sun-day. 

EA. — Q. 54. W T hat sounds have ea? 

A. This diphthong is irregular. Where it is 
followed by r and another consonant it has the 
flat sound of a, as in heart. It has three other 
sounds; the long sound of e; as, in appear; the 



12 PHIfcOSOP&ICAL GRAMMAB. 

short sound of e; as, in dead, and the long sound 
of a; as, infor-bear. These sounds of ea are 
not determined by any principle of orthoepy: 
hence the memory must be depended on for the 
pronunciation of the words in which this diph- 
thong is found, (e) 

EE. — Q. 55. What sound have ee? 

A. The sound of long e; as, in deem. 

EL — Q. 56. What sounds have ei? 

A. Where they are not under accent they 
are regular, and take the sound of short i; as, in 
for-feit; where they are under accent they are 
very irregular, having the sound of long a; as, in 
deign; long e; as, in con-ceit, and long i; as, in 
height. 

EO. — Q. 57. What sounds have eo? 

A. Where this diphthong is under accent it is 
very irregular, having the sound of long e; as, in 
peo-ple; short e; as, in feof-fee; long o; as, in 
yeo-man, and long u; as, mfeod. But where it is 
not under accent it is irregular, and takes the 
the sound of short u; as, in sur-geon. 

EU.—Q. 58. What sound have eu? 

A. The sound of long u; as, in deuce. 

EW. — Q. 59. What sounds have ewl 

A. JSJTFhave the sound of long u; as, in dew, 
except where they are preceded by r — there 
they have the sound of close o; as, in brew. 

EY.—Q. 60. What are the sounds of ey? 

A. The sound of long a where under accent; 



(c) The memory must be depended on for Che true pronunciation of all 
words, in which irregular diphthongs occur, as there is no principle of 
orthoepy to determine in such cases. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 13 

as, in sur-vey, and the sound of long e or short 
$, where not under accent; as, in vat-ley. 

j£, — Q. 61. What arc the sounds of ia? 

A. Where ia are preceded by an aspirate 
consonant or a liquid, they have the sound 
of short a; as, in par-tial, pronounced par-shal; 
but where they are preceded by a liquid, the 
consonant sound of y is interposed between the 
short sound of a and the liquid; as, in Jil-ial, 
pronounced jil-yal. In other situations, they 
take the sound of short i; as, in par-lia-ment, 
mar-riage. 

IE.—Q. 62. What sounds have iei 

A. Where they are under accent, they have 
the sound of long e; as, in grieve., or long i; as, 
in die. Where they are not under accent, 
they have the sound of short u; as, in gla-zier. 

10. — Q. 63. What are the sounds of to? 

A. 10 are not a diphthong, where they are 
under accent.^ This diphthong has the sound 
of short te, where it is preceded by an aspirate 
consonant or a liquid; as, in na-tion, pin-ion. 
But if the aspirate consonant be preceded by 5 
or x, the consonant sound of y is interposed be- 
tween the aspirate and the sound of short u; as, 
in ques-tion, mix-tion. The sound of y is al- 
so interposed between the liquid and short u. 
In other situations it is irregular; having the 
sound of short u; as, in mar-chion-ess, or the 
sound of short i; as, in ctisk-ion. 

OA.-^-Q. 64. What sound have oa? 

A. The sound of long a; as, in boat. 
0£.— Q. 65. What sounds have OE? 

A. This diphthong is irregular throughout. 



14 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAS* 

In some words, it has the sound of long e; as, 
in foe-tus, and in others, the sound of short i; 
as, in as-a-foet-i-da. It has the sound of l6ng 
o; as, in sloe, toe, and the sound of close o; as, in 
ca-noe. The memory must be depended on for 
the pronunciation of words in which it occurs. 

Oh— (j. 66. What sound have oil 

A. This is a pure diphthong — having the 
sound of broad a and short i, so closely con- 
nected that they cannot be separated; as, in 
'point. 

00.— Q. 67. What is the sound of ool 

A. The sound of close o; as, in moon, soon. 
This diphthong is pronounced, in some words, 
like long o; as, in door; but this is a depar- 
ture from analogy. 

©IT.— Q. 68. What are the sounds of ou? 

A. Ot/have a pure diphthongal sound; as, 
in a-bound. They have also the sound of 
broad a; as, in brought; long o;*as, in source; 
close o; as, in soup; short o; as, in trough; 
short u; as, in cou-ple, and middle u; as, in 
should. This is the most irregular diphthong 
in the language. The only regular use it has, 
is in an unaccented final syllable, there it has 
the sound of short u; as, in pious. 
OW.-Q. 69. What sounds have ow? 

A. Where they are under accent, they have 
the diphthongal sound of ou; as, in now, or the 
sound of long o; as, in crow. Where they. are 
not under accent, they have the sound of long o; 
as, in win-dow. 

OY.— Q. 70. What is the sound of oy? 

A, The diphthongal sound of oi; as, in boy. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAS* 15 

UA: — Q. 71. What sounds have ual 

A. Where this diphthong is under accent, 
u takes the consonant sound of w, and misgov- 
erned by the same principles which govern it 
where it is alone; as, in sua-vi-ty. But where 
it is followed by r and another consonant, it 
has the flat sound of a; as, in guard. In some 
words it has the sound of short a; as, in vic- 
tuals. 

UE.—Q. 72. What sounds have we? 

A, In the middle of a word, u takes the con- 
sonant sound of 10, and e has the sound of long 
e; as, in con-sue-tude. Where under accent, 
they have the sound of long u; as, in due. In the 
same syllables with another vowel, they are si- 
lent; as, in vogue. 

I//.— Q. 73. What sounds have ui? 

A. Where they are preceded by r, they 
have the sound of close o; as, in bruise. In 
other positions they are very irregular, having 
the sound of wi; as, in lan-guid; long u; as, in 
sluice; short /; as, in build, and long i; as, in 
guide. 

UO. — Q. 74. What sounds have uo? 

A. The u takes the consonant sound of w, 
and o its long sound; as, in quo-rum. 

TJY. — Q. 75. What sounds have uy? 

A. The sound of long I, where they are under 
accent; as, in buy, and the sound of short i, 
where they they are not under accent; as, in 
am-bil-o-quy. 



16 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

TRIPHTHONGS. 

Q. 76. What is a triphthong? 

A. The union of three vowels having a sim- 
ple vowel sound; as, the eau in flam-beau. 

EAU. — Q. 77. What sounds have eau? 

A. This triphthong is irregular, having the 
sound of long u; as, in beau-ty, and long o; as, 
in beau. 

EOU.—Q. 78. What sounds have eou? 

A. Eou are not a triphthong. Thee is sep- 
arated and has its long sound, and ou have the 
sound of short u; as, in cu-ta-ne-ous. 

EWE.—Q,. 79. What sound have ewe? 

A. The sound of long u; as, in ewe-*-the 
only word in which it occurs, 

EYE.— Q. 80. What sound have eye? 

A. This triphthong occurs only in eye, where 
it has the sound of long L 

IEW.—Q,. 81. What sound have iew? 

A. The sound of long u; as, in view. It is 
not used in any other word. 

IOU.—Q. 82. What sounds have iou? 

A. Where they are preceded by an aspirate 
consonant, they have the sound of short u; as t 
in fae-tious. In all other situations, they are 
not a triphthong. The i is separated and has 
its short sound, and ou have the sound of short 
u; as, in va-ri-ous. 

OEU.—Q. 83. What sound have oeu? 

A. The sound of close o; as, in ma-noeu- 
ver. 

UOY.—Q. 84. What sounds have uoy? 

A. They only occur in the word buoy, where 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 17 

the u has its middle sound, and the oy the diph- 
thongal sound of oi. They are not properly a 
triphthong, 

CONSONANTS. 

Q. 85. Which consonants alway have the same sound? 

A. F, J, M, Q, R, V, SH and PH, and dou- 
ble letters have no variation in their sound, ex- 
cept S; and B, H, K, L and P have a uniform 
sound, where they are not silent. 

Q. 86. What letters vary in their sounds? 

A. C, D, G, N, S, T, X, and Z. 

B. — Q. 87. What sound has b, where it is not silent, 
and where is it silent? 

A. A labial sound; as, in bi-ble. B is silent, 
where it is preceded by m or followed by t; as, 
in thumb, debt. 

C.—Q. 88. What letters does c sound like? 

A. C sounds like k, where it is followed by 
a, o, u, I, r or t; as, in cap, corps, cup, &c.; 
and like s, where it is followed by e, i, or y; as, 
in ci-der. C sounds like s, where it ends a 
syllable, and is followed by e, i or y; as, in 
du-plic-i-ty, ac-id; but where it ends a syl- 
lable and is not followed by e, i or y, it has the 
sound of k; as, in ac-me. And where c is pre- 
ceded by the accent, and followed by a diph- 
thong, it has the sound of sh; as, in so-cial. C 
is silent in some words; as, in czar, in-dict; 
but we have no rule to determine where it is 
silent. 

CH—Q. 89. What letters do ch sound like? 

A. Gh take three sounds: 1. The sound 
which t has in nature. This sound cannot be 

3# 



18 ruiLOsormCAL grammar. 

made by the combination of any letters in the 
language, and can be learned only, from the 
voice, or by separating the sounds with which 
it is united. 2. The sound of k; as, in school, 
and 3, the sound of sh; as, in ma-chine. 

D. — Q. 90. What sound has d, and where does d take 
take sounds of other consonants? 

A. D Jias a dental sound; as, in ca-diz. 
Where it is preceded by the accent and follow- 
ed by a diphthong, d sounds like j; as, in sol- 
dier. D sounds like t, in the termination ed r 
if it is preceded by a sharp; as, in t rip-ed. 

F.—Q. 91. What sound has/? 

A. A hissing labial sound; as, in Jit. 

G. — Q,. 92. What sound has g, and where does it sound 
like some other letters? 

A. G has its guttural sound where, it is fol- 
lowed by a, o, u, I or r; as, in gave, go; where 
it ends a syllable and is not followed by e, i, or 
y; as, in ug-ly, and where it is double; as, in " 
bug-gy. G sounds generally like j, where it is 
followed by e, i or y; as, in gin-ger; and al- 
ways like dj where it ends a syllable, preceded 
by an accented vowel, and followed by e, i or y; 
as, in rig-id. 

Q. 93. Where is g silent? 

A. Where it is followed by n or m; as, in 
re-sign, di-a-phragm. 

GH.—Q,. 94. What letters do gh sound like, and where 
are they silent? 

A. Gh sound like hard g, in the beginning of 
a word; as, in ghost, and like f, in the end of 
a word, if they are not silent; as; in laugh. Gh 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 19 

are silent, where they are followed by t ; as, in 
light . They are also silent, in the end of some 
words; as; in dough. 

H. — Q. 95. What sound has h, and where is it silent? 

A. H has a sound peculiar to itself, and 
though classed with the hissing dentals, does 
not properly belong to that class. It may be 
denominated a guttural aspiration. H is si- 
lent where it is preceded by r; as, in rJiet-o-ric, 
and where it ends a final syllable, and is prece- 
ded by a vowel; as, in ah, hal-le-lu-jah. 

J.— Q. 96. What sound has J? 

A. A dental sound; as, in just. 

K. — Q. 97. What sound has fc, and where is it silent? 

A. K has a guttural sound; as, in king, and 
is silent, where it is followed by n; as, in know- 
ledge. 

L. — Q. 98. What sound has I, and where is it silent? 

A. A dental sound; as, in la-dy. L is silent 
where it is preceded by a, and followed by m, 
v, f, or k, in the same syllable; as, in psalm, 
calf, walk, salve. It is also silent in some 
words, where it is followed by m, v,f or k, and 
preceded by o. L is silent in would, could, 
and should. {/) 

jlf— Q. 99. What sound has m? 

A. A nasal sound; as, in man. 

(/) L, preceded by a consonant and followed by mute e, in a final 
syllable, has a very peculiar sound, unlike el or le. The final e is sup- 
pressed and the I is articulated with the preceding consonant, without 
either a preceding or succeeding- vowel; as, in ta-ble^ fa-ble, pronoun- 
ced ta-bl, fa-bl, &c. The 'Gothic abbreviated participial terminations, 
peopled, bridled, &c, pronounced pco-pld, bri-dld, are still more sin- 
gular. These may truly be denominated monsters in grammar — syl- 
lables without vowels. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



N. — Q. 100. What sounds has n, and where is it silent? 

A. iVhas a nasal sound; as, in man-ner, ex- 
cept where it is followed by the gutturals k, q, 
hard g or c, and there it has the sound of ng, as, 
in con-gress, pronounced as if written cong- 
gress. And n is silent where it is preceded by 
I or m; as, in kiln, hymn. 

P. — Q. 101. What sound hasp, and where is it silent? 

A. P has a labial sound; as, in pep-per, and 
is silent where it is followed by 5 or t , in the 
same syllable; as, in psalm, tempt. 

PH. — Q. 102. What sound have ph, and where are 
they 3ilent? 

A. Ph have the sound of/; as, in phi-lan- 
thro-py, and are silent where they are followed 
by th; as, in phthis-i&. 

Q Q. 103. What sound has q. 

A. This letter has a guttural sound peculiar 
to itself, which can only be learned from the 
voice; as, heard in quack, and hot the sound of 
fc, as orthoepists have said, (g) 



(g) This letter is found in the alphabet of the Moeso-Cfothic lan- 
guage, which is the parent of all the languages of Northern Europe; 
except the Celtic, and the languages founded on it. The Gothic lan- 
guage was brought to Rome at the time of the conquest by the Goths 
and Vandals, and many Gothic words were introduced into the Latin 
language. The Anglo-Saxon is a dialect of the Gothic, and the par- 
ent of our modern English language, and also the German, and its cog- 
nate languages. In the Gothic alphabet the sound of q is represented 
by the sound of k, (for the Gothic has no c,) and the consonant sound of 
to. Q is not found in the Anglo Saxon. alphabet, but the sound which 
it has in the Gothic is found in the Saxon, and made by the union of c, 
which has the sound of &, (the Saxon having no soft c,) and the conso- 
nant sound of w; as, m the verb cwic-eian, from which our adverb 
quickly is derived — it means life-like or lively manner. Q has the 
same sound in English. But as the sound of k and the consonant 
sound of «c, as heard in well, cannot be united by the human voice/these 
letters cannot represent the sound of q, nor is the sound of k heard in 
th« word quack, or any other word in. which q occurs. The ancients 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 21 

#.— - Q. 104. What sound has r? 

A. A rough guttural sound; as, in run; but 
where r is preceded by a liquid it has a smooth 
guttural sound; as, in lard. 

S.—Q. 105. What sounds have s? 

A. S has its hissing dental sound, where it 
begins a word; as, in sin-gle; where it is fol- 
lowed or preceded by a sharp; as, in blocks, 
spit; where it is final and preceded by a, i, a 
or u; as, in bi-as, cho-rus; wherQ it is double, 
and is not followed by a diphthong; as, in pas- 
sive; where it is in dis, and under accent or 
followed by a sharp; as, in dis-lo-cate, dis- 
card; where it is in mis; as, in mis-take; where 
it is followed by mute e in nouns or adnouns; as, 
in a-buse, mo-rose; where it is in the termina- 



probably concluded that the sound ofw, in this association, was its 
vowel sound, which is the sound of m, and therefore connected u with 
q, as they are found in the Latin, English, German, French, Spanish 
and other kindred languages. But the sound of q has nothing of the 
sound of u in it, and can be as easily prononnced without u, as with it. 
But some may think the Latin ought not to be included in the above 
enumeration, as it is not derived from the Gothic. The Latin lan- 
guage is composed of Greek and Gothic, being much younger than 
either: hence those peculiarities and words in the Latin, which cannot 
be found in the Greek, and there are many such, must be looked for in 
the Gothic, where they may be found. 

The Celtic, Gothic, and Greek were the first languages of Europe; 
but which was prior I have no means of ascertaining. In the eighteen 
letters of the Celtic and the twenty-four of the Greek, we find no q, nor 
any sound equivalent. Celtic philologists say the ancient Celts had 
more than eighteen characters, and that one of those characters had a 
sound similar to our q. The Celtic language might had such a char- 
acter, but we have no means, I fear, to ascertain whether it had or not. 

The Saxons became acquainted with the Celts at an early period, 
and we may suppose, through Celtic influence laid aside the Gothic q. 

I think we may therefore conclude, that all those languages of Eu- 
rope, in which q is found, have some affinity to the old Gothic, the 
language of a people excelled by none for heroic valor, and the parent 
stock of those languages in which the sciences are developed more clearly 
than in any other, — Languages in which the gospel trumpet pours forth 
its fullest and deepest sound. 



22 pniLosorniCAL grammar. 

tion sive; as, in co-he-sive; where it is in the 
terminations sary or sory; as, in ad-ver-sa-ry y 
cur-so-ry; where it is preceded by a liquid and 
followed by mute e; as, in pulse, tense curse; 
where it is in the termination sy in words of 
three syllables, accented on the first; as, in 
lier'-e-sy; where it is in the termination sible, 
preceded by a liquid; as, in ten-si-ble; where it 
is in the terminations sal or set; as, in men-sal; 
where it is preceded by con; as, in con-suit*? 
where it is preceded by pre or pro; as, 'mpre- 
side,- pros-e-cute, and where it is followed by 
ity; as, in cu-ri-os-i-ty. S has the sound of 
z, where it is preceded by a flat; as, in bags, 
lads, ribs; where it forms a syllable with e; as, 
in rich-es; where it is final and preceded by a 
liquid; as, in mor-als; where it is followed by 
m; as, in chasm; where it is in dis, and follow- 
ed by an accented syllable beginning with a 
vowel flat or liquid; as, in dis-or-der, dis- 
band dis-miss; where it is followed by 
mute e in verbs; as, in a-buse; where it is pre- 
ceded by an accented syllable ending with a 
vowel, m or n; as, in clumsy, rosy; where it 
is followed by ible, and preceded by a vowel; as, 
in ris-i-ble; where it is in the termination ise, in 
words of three syllables, with the accent on the 
first; as, in ex-er-cise; where it is in the termina- 
tion sal, and preceded by a vowel; as, in na- 
sal; where it is in the termination soni as, in 
season, and where it is preceded by re; as, in 
resume. S has the sound of sh, where it is 
preceded by a liquid and followed by a diph- 
thong; as, in com-pulsion, and where it is fol- 
lowed by a diphthong, and preceded by a vowel 



WHLOSOPIUCAL GRAMMAB. $£ 

\mder accent, it has the sound of zh; as, in a- 
brd-sion. SS have the sound of &&, where they 
are preceded by the accent and followed by a 
diphthong; as, in com-pas'-sion. (h) 

T. — Q. 106. What sounds have t, and where is it silent? 

A. T has a dental sound, where it is not fol- 
lowed by a diphthong; as, in bit-ter. Where 
it is preceded by s or or, and followed by a 
diphthong, it has its peculiar sound, as heard in 
na-ture; as, in mix-tion, com-bus-tion; where 
it is not preceded by 5 or x, and followed by 
a diphthong, it has the sound of sk; as, in mo- 
tion, and where it is preceded by the accent, 
and followed by long ?e, it has its peculiar sound; 
as, in na-ture. T is silent, where it is pre- 
ceded by s, and followed by en or le; as, in 
has-ten, a-pos-tle. 

TH.—Q,. 107. What sounds have tht 

A. A sharp lisping dental sound; as, in 
Ihun-dcr, and a flat lisping dental sound; as, 
in this. 

V.— Q. 108. What sound has x>? 

X. A hissing labial sound; as, in vi-tal. 

W. — Q. 109. What sound has u?, where it is a con- 
sonant, and where is it silent? 

A. A labial sound; as, in will. Win silent 
where it is followed by r; as, in write. 

X.—Q. 110. What sounds has *?• 

A. Where x is under accent or followed by 

(h) Numerous as the rules are whieh determine the sounds of #, 
there arc many positions not included in the above rules, in which its 
sound cannot be determined by any pririciplei of analogy. .'It is truly 
a crooked letter, it gives the orthoepist as much trouble ;as all the 
other consonants do, 



24 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

a consonant, it has the sound of ks; as, in ex- 
pect; where it is not under accent, and is 
followed by a vowel, it has the sound of gz; as; 
in ex-istj and where it begins a word or syllable, 
it has the sound of z; as, in xe-ro-des. 

Y. — Q. 111. What sound has y where it is a consonant! 

A. Nearly a labial sound; as, in ycl-low. (i) 

Z.—Q. 112. What sounds has z? 

A. Where z is not preceded by the accent, 
it has a hissing dental sound; as, in zeal, but 
where it is preceded by the accent, and follow- 
ed by a diphthong, it has the sound of zh; as, 
in bra-zier. 

ACCENT* 

Q. 113. What is accent? 

A. Accent is laying more stress of voice on 
one syllable of a word, than on the other, or 
others; as, in presume 1 . (2) 

(2) The accent is not regulated from the beginning, but 
from the end of a word, because the letters which are in 
the end of a word govern the accent. Accent consults the 
ease of the voice. If the latter end of a word has difficult 
letters to pronounce, such as gutturals or aspirates, the 
voice is not able to pronounce them distinctly, after having 
exerted itself to give the accent. Hence if these letters 
come in the latter end of a word the accent is upon them, and 
the voice pronounces them by thesame exertion which gives 
the accent. But if vowels or liquids come in the latter part 
of a word, the voice c£n pass over these letters easily, after 
it has given the accent. Words which have this kind of 
letters, in their latter end, are accented near the first part, 

( i ) This letter is classed by orthoepists among the labials; but the 
sound it has where it is a consonant is not made by the lips. It does 
not properly belong to any class, and may be denominatod a lingua 
palatal, because its sound is made by the tongue and palate. 






PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 25 

<l. 114. How many accents have words? 

A. Words of many syllables have two ac- 
cents; a primary and a secondary. 

Q. 115. What is the difference between the primary and 
secondary accents? 

A. The secondary accent is a less stress of 
voice than the primary, yet so full as to distin- 
guish the syllable on which it is placed, from 
the unaccented syllables. 

Q. 116. How is the place of the secondary accent deter- 
mined? 

A. By the location of the primary accent. 
The secondary is on the third syllable from the 
primary. If the primary falls on the latter end 
of a word, the secondary is on the antepenulti- 
mate syllable from the primary. But if the pri- 
mary falls on the first part of a word, the 
secondary is on the third syllable forward from 
the primary; as, in ad-hi-atd, leg-a-tee'. (3) 

Q. 117. How are words of different syllables denomina- 
ted? 

A. Words of one syllable, are called mono- 
syllables; of two syllables, dissyllables; of three 
syllables, trisyllables, and these of four or more 
syllables, polysyllables. 

or on or near the beginning. This is the true philosophy of 
accent, and the reason why we count the accent from the 
last syllable and not the first. 

(3) In the first of these examples the primary accent falls 
on the first syllable, and the secondary on the last. In the 
last the primary accent is on the last syllable, and the sec- 
ondary on the first. A word must have three syllables to 
have two accents, and if the primary accent falls on the mid- 
die of a word, it must have three syllables, either backward 
or forward from the place of the accent, to have two accents. 
4 



26 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAK. 

Q. 118. How are the different syllables of the same word 
denominated? 

A. The last syllable is called the ultimate; 
the first from the last, the penultimate; the 
second from the last, the antepenultimate, and 
the third from the last, the preantepenulti- 
mate. (j) 

Q. 119. What words are accented on the ultimate syl- 
lable? 

A. 1. Words of two syllables which have 
either of the diphthongs ai, ea, ei, au, ee, ou, oo, 
ay, oi, ey, tie or oy, in the ultimate syllable; as, 
in abstain!, of- fray'. 2. Words of two sylla- 
bles which end in gn; as, be-nigti. 3. Verbs 
of two syllables; as, corn-pel. 4. Words of 
two syllables, which have broad a, or broad o, 
in the ultimate; as, absorb', de-bar'. 5. Words 
of three syllables, which terminate in ose, ee or 
ier; as, tu-mu-lose', leg-a-tee', cav-a-lier'. And 
words of two syllables, which have a vowel in 
the last syllable, followed by a consonant and 
mute e, are generally accented on the ultimate; 
as, re-late; though the exceptions are numer- 
ous* 

Q. 120, What words are accented on the penultimate 
syllable? 

A* All words which terminate in tion, sion, 
cian, cious, cient, tious, cial, tial, tient, ties, 
sclent, scence, scious, ich, it, id, sence, or 
sive; as, com-pulsion, mo'-tion, See. 2. 
Words of two syllables, which are not verbs, 
which terminate in le, tnre, on, y, age, fid, er, 

\j) The accent is placed on some words above the preantepenulti- 
mate syllable; but such cases are not determined by any principle of 
analogy, 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 27 

ish, el, less, et, n, ing, our, ous, ed, en, ow, ure, 
nion, ness, liar, r, dom, or, om, ome, ot, ol, 
od, re, ess, some, ment, ard, em, ress, ship, al, 
ler, lar, um, my, led or est; &s,fu'-ture,fa'-ble, 
ba-con, bag-gage, &c. 3. Words of two syl- 
lables, in which bb, dd, ff, gg, 11, mm, nn, pp, 
rr, ss or tt, come between the ultimate and 
penultimate vowels; as, in sab-bath, of-Jice, 
&c. 4. Words of two syllables, which have 
broad a or broad o in the penultimate syllable; 
as, in har'-vest, cor'-ban. 5. Words of two 
syllables, which have either of the diphthongs, 
at, ea, au, ow, ee, oo, ot, aw, io or oy, in the 
first syllable; as, in tai'-lor, bed-con, <fcc. 6. 
And words of two syllables, in which a vowel 
ends the penultimate syllable, and begins the 
ultimate; as, in dd-ist. 

Q. 121. What words are accented on the antepenulti- 
mate syllable? 

A. 1. Words of three or more syllables, 
which have a single or two combinable conso- 
nants, between the ultimate and penultimate 
vowels; as in lat '-i-ttide, ca-pit -u-late, &c. 2. 
Words of three or more syllables, which have 
a single or two combinable consonants between 
the penultimate vowel and the termination 
ous; as, in so -no-rous. 3. Words of three or 
more syllables, which end the penultimate and 
begin the ultimate syllables with a vowel; as, 
in a-the-ist. 4. And words of three or more 
syllables, which have uncombinable consonants 
between the ultimate and penultinate vowels; 
aa, in d-ban-don, sep-ul-chre; though there 
are many eAooptions to this principle. 



28 Philosophical grammas. 

Q* 12^. What words are accented on the preantepenulti' 
mate syllable? 

A. Words of four or more syllables, which 
end in y or le, and which have a single, or two 
combinable consonants between the penulti- 
mate and antepenultimate vowels; as, in mat- 
ri-mo-ny, ref'-ra-ga-ble. 

Q. 123. What syllable of words is accented, to which 
either the affixes merit, ance, er, or, by, full, Zes.s, ous, ent > 
age, al, ing, ive, ible, able, y, oze, ness, fully, edly, ency y 
ory, ary ovative&re added? 

A. The same syllable that was* accented in 
the primitive word; as, in a-base-ment, ac- 
cepf-ance. Sec. (k) 

{k) The student will find many words which are not accented agree- 
ably to the preceding principles. These are anomalies, not necessary 
exceptions; but voluntary departures from those rules or principles, 
which are founded on the agreements of the language; called analogy. 
Elementary books are lamentably deficient in first principles. Indeed 
they are not only deficient, but also defective. Mr. Walker's dictiona- 
ry, and Mr. Mulkey's spelling book, are the only book& I know, among 
allthe dictionaries, grammars and spelling books, which have found their 
way into our colleges, academies or common schools, which have not 
committed the subject of pronunciation to the quicksand of custom, and 
the whim of capricious speakers. Hence many words are founds 
which were capriciously torn from their family relatione and made to 
associate, and agree in sound, with those for whom they have no affin- 
ity. This may justly be denominated literary kidnapping. A practice 
which has nothing to justify it in the analogy of the language, and no- 
thing to authorise it but capricious custom, which is controlled, to a 
great extent, by young aspirants for distinction and public favor — un- 
safe copies. The consequence is, one pronunciation obtains at one 
time, and a different one at another; and the pronunciation of the lan- 
guage remains unsettled. But a disposition is manifested by literary 
men, to bring these poor exiles home, and again unite them with their 
family relations. Dr. Webster reduced several hundreds of Mr. Walk- 
er's anomalies to order, leaving, however, nearly one thousand still in 
exile. It is to be hoped that some master spirit will rise above the in- 
fluence of custom, and give us a pronouncing dictionary founded on 
analogy. This would smooth the path of the student — -greatly fa- 
cilitate his progress, and give uniformity to the language. The fore- 
going principles teach the student how words are generally "pronounced, 
and how analogy would pronounce all words. When he has become mas- 
ter of those principles, he may depart from them and follow custom, 
when he may think proper so to do. But he will not do it h)*>»fty< — 
He will know that he is honoring custom at the exr*" 3 ^ ot principle. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 29 

SYLLABICATION. 

Q. 124. What is syllabication? 

A. Syllabication is the division of words into 
syllables. 

Q. 125. What is the importance of syllabication? 

A. Syllabication gives the letters of a word 
their proper division, without which their true 
sounds could never be ascertained; because 
their sounds vary, according to their relative 
positions. (4) 

Q. 126. What is a syllable? 

A. A syllable is a letter, or combination of 
letters pronounced together, or by a single ex- 
ertion, or impulse of the voice. 

Q. 127. How is the number of syllables in a word deter- 
mined? 

A. By the number of vowel sounds. There 
must be as many syllables in a word, as there 
are vowel sounds. The vowel sounds form the 
basis of the syllables, with which the conso- 

(4) The vowels e, o and u are long, where they end sylla- 
bles, and a and i are long, where they end syllables under 
accent. But the vowels are all short, where they are fol- 
lowed by consonants. Therefore, if the consonants are not 
rightly divided among the vowels of the different syllables, 
the principles which govern the sounds of the vowels must 
be violated, or the words incorrectly pronounced. For ex- 
ample, — the word baker is accented on the first syllable, be- 
cause it ends in er, and is a word of two syllables. If we 
put k to the first syllable, a will be followed by a consonant, 
and consequently be short, and the word pronounced bak-er; 
but if we put k to the last syllable, a will end a syllable un- 
der accent, where it is alway long, and the word will be pro- 
nounced correctly ba'-ker. This single example shows the 
importance of this part of grammar. The student will do 
well to make himself master of the principles of syllabica- 
tion. 

4* 



30 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

nants are connected, and between which they 
must be divided. (/) 

Q. 128. Where a single consonant comes between the 
ultimate and penultimate syllables of a word, to which sylla- 
ble does it belong? 

A. It belongs to the ultimate; as, the d in 
a-bi-ding; the k in ba-ker, and the I in em-u- 
late. Except the consonant is x, or the ulti- 
mate vowel is i, followed by ck, d, t or sh; in 
those situations, the consonant belongs to the 
penultimate syllable; as, x in ex-act, I in rel- 
ick, p in rap-id, r in mer-it or n in fin-ish. 
But if the penultimate vowel is u the consonant 
belongs to the ultimate syllable; as, the b in cu- 
bzck* 

Q,. 129. Whe^e two combinable consonants come be- 
tween the ultimate and penultimate vowels, to which do they 

. belong? 

A, They belong to the ultimate syllable; as y 
the g and r in de-grade. Th is an exception; 
they belong to the penultimate; as, in ratk-er* 
And where s is used with a vowel, with which 
it will combine, it is separated, and belongs to 
the penultimate syllable; as, the sin gas-pel. 

Q,. J. 30. Where a single consonant comes between the 
penultimate and antepenultimate vowels, to which does it 

belong? 

A. If it is preceded by any vowel, (but u) un- 



( l ) Many vowels, in diphthongs and triphthongs, have no sounds. 
Two or three vowels in these combinations make only one sound, and 
consequently belong to the syllable in which that sound is heard. And 
oi and ou have each but one sound, and cannot form two syllables. 
But where there are two distinct and separate vowel sounds in a word,. 
there must be two syllables. These vowels must be separated; as, the 
i and e in di-er. In die there is only one sound, though the same vow- 
els occur, and therefore die is a word of one syllable, though dr.gr is a 
word of two. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. - 31 

tier accent, and followed by a vowel and a con- 
sonant, it belongs to the antepenultimate 
syllable; as, the I in cal'-i-co. But if the ante- 
penultimate vowel is w, or is not under accent, 
or the consonant is followed by a, e or ?, and 
another vowel, it belongs to the penultimate 
syllable; as, the n in u f -ni-ty, the m in e-mer- 
sion, and the n in le'-ni-ent. Where the con- 
sonant is followed by o or w, and another vowel, 
it belongs to the antepenultimate syllable; as, 
the t in rit-n-al. (5) 

(5) Vowels drown the consonants. The ultimate vowel 
has more power over the consonants, than any other in a 
word; hence if it is not i, it alway draws the preceding con- 
sonant to the last syllable; as, the d in stu-dent. This is the 
case where the penultimate is under accent. An unaccent- 
ed ultimate vowel has more power, than a penultimate ac- 
cented one; if the ultimate vowel is not i. But if the pen- 
ultimate syllable is accented, and the ultimate vowel is i, the 
consonant belongs generally to the penultimate syllable; as. 
the p in rap-id. I has not so much power, as some ef the 
other vowels, over the consonants. Accented vowels have 
more power than unaccented ones. Whero a consonant 
comes between an unaccented and an accented vowel, it 
generally belongs to the accented vowel; as, the 7 in eal-i- 
co. But two unaccented vowels have more power general- 
ly, than one accented one, and draw the consonants from the 
accented vowel; as, the n in le-ni-ent. U has less power 
than any other vowel. If it is accented, it does not draw the 
consonants from an unaccented following vowel; as, the n in 
u-ni-ty belongs to the unaccented vowel. Nor does it draw 
the consonants from a preceding accented vowel, though it 
is followed by another vowel; as, in rit-u-al, where the con- 
sonant belongs to the accented vowel. The nigher vowels 
are to the end of a word, the more power they have over 
the consonants; hence where a consonant comes between 
two vowels, it belongs to the last, if the first is not under 
accent. 



32 . PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR- 

Q,. 131. Where two combinable consonants come be- 
tween the penultimate and antepenultimate vowels, to which 
do they belong? 

A. If they are preceded by any vowel (but 
u) under accent, and followed by a vowel and 
a consonant, one of them belongs to the ante- 
penultimate syllable; as, the s in des-per-ate. 
But if the antepenultimate vowel is t/, or is not 
under accent, or if the consonants are followed 
by any vowel (but u) which is succeeded by any 
other vowel, they belong to the penultimate 
syllable; as, the t and r in nu'-tri-ment; the b 
and r in a-bra'-sion, and the t and r in pa' -tri- 
al. If the first succeeding vowel is ?/, one of 
the consonants belongs to the antepenultimate 
syllable; as, the b in ab-lu-ent. 

Q. 132. Where a single consonant comes between the 
antepenultimate and preantepenultimate vowels, to which 
does it belong? 

A. If the consonant is preceded by any vow- 
el but u; under either the primary or seconda- 
ry accent, and is followed by a vowel and a con- 
sonant, it belongs to the preantepenultimate syl- 
lable; as, the p in op-er-a-ble and the n in 
gen-er-d-tion. But if the preceding vowel is 
u, or is neither under the primary nor second- 
ary accent; or if the consonant is followed by 
any vowel, (but u^) and the following vowel is 
succeeded by another vowel, it belongs to 
the antepenultimate syllable; as, the p in 
d-pi-a-ry, the b in a-bun'-dant-ly, and the ft 
in as-tro-nom'-i-cal. If the following vowel is 
u the consonant belongs to the preantepenulti- 
mate syllable; as, the t in stat-u-a-ry. (6) 

(6) In the example, operable, the p is preceded by a row- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 33 

U. 233. Where a single or two combinable consonants 
come between the vowels of syllables above the preantepen- 
ultimate, how are they disposed of? 

A. Their disposition is made by the same 
rules which determine their location, where 
they come between the antepenultimate and 
preantepenultimate vowels. (Seeprin. 132.) 

Q. 134. Where a liquid is preceded by a penultimate 
vowel under accent, and followed by io or ia, to which sylla- 
ble does it belong? 

A. To the penultimate; as, the n in pin-ion, 
and the I injil-ial. 

Q. 135. What disposition, must be made of double or un- 
eombinable consonants? 

A. They must be separated; as, the gg in 
bug-gy, and the m and b in cum-ber. 

Q. 136. Where q or x comes between two vowels, to, 
which do they belong? 

A. Q belongs to the last, and x to the first; 
as, the q in li-quor, and the x in ex-ist. (m) 

el under the primary accent. And in the example, genera- 
tion, the n is preceded by a vowel under the secondary ac- 
cent. The first word ends in Ze, and uncombinable conso- 
nants do not come between the penultimate and antepenulti- 
mate vowels; therefore the accent is on the preantepenulti- 
mate syllable. The last word ends in Hon, which requires 
the primary accent to be on the penultimate syllable. The 
secondary must be on the third syllable from the primary, 
which is the preantepenultimate. (See prin. ofac, 115,116.) 

(•m) If the ancients had not mistakingly united u with q to renr<? 
sent the sound of the Anglo-Saxon com bi'nation of hard. y^.V wmc . n 
they used to represent the sound of the Gothic^, ~~ -^uld .not have, m 
our language, the anomaly of a jw-^^5 T h f ? rt ^ft a fr- 
iable under accent; as-t^-^f^^' B" tas f is followed by two 
vowels u and v-^ -penultimate * has not power to draw q to the pen- 
uHim^L .^liable, and must therefore end the syllable under accent, 
where analogy requires it to be long. If q was used without u, as it 
might be, the q would belong to the penultimate syllable, and the i be 
short, because the ultimate i does not draw a preceding consonant 
from. an accented penultimate vowel. (See syllabication, and note g.) 



34 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 137. What must be done with prefixes and affixes? 

A. They must be separated from the rest of 
the word; as, dis, in dis-arm, and the ness in 
ho-li-ness. 

Q. 138. What must be done with compound words? 

A. They must be separated; as, draw-back. 



FAKT II. 

ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Q. 139. What is orthography? 

A. Orthography is the art of writing words 
with the proper letters; — the just method of 
spelling words. 

Q. 140. Roes orthography teach how to write all the 
letters of the alphabet? 

A. No; orthography teaches how to write 
the consonants, where they are net silent, and 
e and y, where they are final in a primitive 
word, that becomes a derivative, by the addition 
of a letter or syllable. Orthoepy teaches the 
true writing of the vowels and silent letters. (7) 

(7) The parts of grammar are intimately connected with 
each other. A knowledge of one part depends on a knowl- 
edge of the other, or others. We cannot be good orthogra- 
P 'f 1 . ^ we are good orthoepists, nor can we have a 
correct knowlea^r 9vntax? without having a previous 
knowledge of etymology, nor or r .^ ody witho * understand . 
mg the previous parts. 

We cannot understand the pronunciation of words, unless 
we are well acquainted with the sounds of the letters in the 
words. And as the same letter sounds differently, in differ- 
ent situations, and in some situations takes the sound of other 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 35 

Q. 141. Where are the consonants doubled? 

"A. Where they are in monosyllables, or in 
words accented on the last syllable, and are 
preceded by a single vowel, and another sylla- 
ble is added, beginning with a vowel; as, in 
wit, wit-ty; he-gin, be-gin-ner. But if the 
consonant is preceded by a diphthong, or unac- 
cented syllable, it remains single; as, toil, toil- 
ing; offer, offer-ing. And where f, I or 
s are final, in monosyllables, and preceded by a 
single vowel, they are double; as, in staff, mill, 
stress. The only exceptions are of, if, as, is, 
has, teas, yes, his, this, us and thus. Words 
ending with any double letter but I, and taking 
less, ness, ly or ful, after them, preserve the 1 
letter double; as, in harmlessness, stiffly, dis- 
tressful, &c. But those words which end in 
double I, drop one I where they take one of 
those additions; as, in fully skilful, &c. 

ORTHOGRAPHICAL ERRORS. 

The business of to-day ought nott to be deferred til to- 
morrow. Whenn we have outstriped our errors, we have 
wojin the race. It is no great merit to spel wel, butt a great 
defect to do lit incorrectly. Jacob worshipped his Creator, 

letters, and in others is silent, we will write the letter, the 
sound of which we hear, and not the letter whose sound is 
mutated, unless our memories or our knowledge of orthoepy 
prevent us; and where the letters are silent, we will not write 
them. The errors which are occasioned by the mutations and 
suppressions of the sounds of the letters, and these are the most 
numerous class, can only be shunned, by a knowledge of ortho- 
epy or by the memory. Orthography, independent of orthoepy, 
is a very concise part of grammar, extending only to the 
doubling, of the consonants, and the mutation of y, where it 
is final, and the elision of final e. Yet a very important 
part. 



36 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

leaning onn the topp of his staf. Many a irapp is laid to 
ensnare the feet off youth. We accumulate our sorrows 
by defering our repentance. The arrows of calumny fal 
harmlesly att the feet of virtue. The road to the blisfal 
regions is as openn to the peasant as to the king. 

"The silent stranger stood amaz'd to see 
Contempt of wealth, and willful poverty." 

Q. 142. Where is y changed fori? 

A. Where it is preceded by a consonant, in 
the final syllable of a primitive word, which be- 
comes a derivative word, by adding another 
letter or syllable; as, in spy, spies; carry, car- 
ries; happy, happier, happiest. But if the ad- 
ded syllable begins with i, the y is not changed; 
as, in carry, carrying. Y preceded by a vow- 
el, in such situations, as the above, is not chan- 
ged; as, in boy, boys; cloy, cloyed, Sec. 

ORTHOGRAPHICAL ERRORS. 

To live happyly is to live to God. Happyness and holy* 
ness are inseparably connected. The unpardoned siner is 
heavyly laded. When we act against conscience we become 
the destroiers of our own peace. Darkness rests on the fu- 
ture prospects of the enemy s of God; The hopes of infidels 
arejoiless. We may be plaiful, and yet innocent. Com- 
mon extremitys and common blesings fal alike on the 
good and upon the envyous. Our general conduct portrait 
our general character, 

Q. 143. Where is final e omitted? 

A. Final e is generally omitted where it is si- 
lent, preceded by a vowel, and followed by either 
of the affixes, less, ness, ly or ful; as, in duly, 
truly, awful, &,c. But if e is preceded by a 
consonant, and followed by one of those affixes, 
it is retained; as, in, paleness, closely, peace- 
ful, &lc. E suffers elision where it is followed 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 37 

by any affix beginning with a vowel; as, in 
lodging, slavish, <fcc. The affix merit saves 
the e from elision, except in a few words; as, in 
abatement, excitement, &c. The words judg- 
ment, abridgment and acknowledgment, are 
deviations from this rule. 

ORTHOGRAPHICAL ERRORS. 

The warmth of disputation destrols thai sedatncss of mind, 
which is necessary to discover truth. In all our reasoning, 
our minds should be sincerly emploied in the pursuit of truth. 
The worship of God is an important and aweful service. 
Wisdom is tritely fair; folly only appears so. The study of 
the English language, is makcing dayly advancment. A 
judicious arrangment of stvdys facilitates improvmeni. 
Gratitude is a forceible and active principle, in, good and 
generous minds. Errors and misconduct are more excvsea- 
ble in ignorant, than in well instructed persons. An oblige- 
big and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a 
cringeing humor. Labor and expense are lost upon a drone- 
ish spirit. 



PART III. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

Q. 1. What is Etymology? 

A. Etymology is that part of grammar, 
which treats of the classification of words, their 
variations, and derivations. 

Q. 2. How many classes of words has the English lan- 
guage? 

A. Nine, — 1. Noun, 2. Pronoun, 3: Ad- 
noun, 4. Verb, 5. Participle, 6. Adverb, 
7. Preposition, 8. Conjunction, and 9, In- 

5 



38 PHILOSOPHICAL GBAMttARy 

terjection, distinguished from each other by 
their use, and manner of meaning, (n) 



(n) A, an and the are made, by the prevailing systems of grammar, 
& distinct part of speech. I class them with Ad nouns. This class of 
words embraces the Article, Adjective, and Relative and Adjective 
Pronouns of the old grammars. I can see no reason for making a and 
the a distinct part of speech, that does not apply to many other words, 
and requires those words to be arranged under the same head. A, an, 
ane and one, are derived from the Saxon verb Ananad, and have the 
very same signification.- They mean one or oned; i. c. made one. If 
a and an arc articles, a.tie and one must also be articles, for they arc the 
Very same word, differently spelled. And if one must be classed among 
the articles, two, three, four, &c, must be classed in the same way, be- 
cause they are all numerical terms, and have the .same us?, and manner 
of meaning. These will swell the list of Articles very considerably. 
That is the past participle of the Saxon verb, thean, thegan or ihion, 
which arc but different spellings of the same verb, thehan, Gothic; 
which means taken, or assumed. The is the imperative of the same 
verb, and ha*s essentially the same meaning and use. The and that 
may be used the one for the other, in many places, without doing any 
violence to the sense of the sentence. We cannot separate these words 
without doing violence to every principle that ought to govern us, in 
the classification of words. This is used to define nouns, in the very 
same way that the and that are. It points them out, or defines them, 
and must, for this reason, belong to the same class. These and those 
are used as the plurals of this and that, and must belong to the same 
part of speech, unless it can be made to appear that the singular belongs 
to one part of speech, and the plural of the same word belongs to some 
other. Nor can we stop here. Which is often used for that, having the 
very same signification, and manner of meaning, and must therefore 
belong to the same class. If words are to be classed, because of their 
use and manner of meaning, which is unquestionably the true ground 
of classification, all the definitive Adnouns must be classed with the 
Articles a and the. The distinction between dejimtive and descriptive 
adnouns-, in their approximation to each other, is not manifest, and 
therefore, we will not be able to find any limit to the words which re- 
quire to be classed with a and the, until we have included all the ad- 
nouns or adjectives, relative and adjective pronouns. For all the words 
classed under these several heads, in -the old grammar?, have the same 
Use and manner of meaning. 

I have divided words into nine parts of speech, not because, in phi- 
losophical strictness, there arc nine sorts of words, but because words 
-have nine ways in which their significations are applied. And by 
making their manntr of meaning the ground of their classification, I 
am enabled to retain the classification of the dictionaries and grammars 
now in use, which, with me-, is an object so desirable, that I only .differ 
from them, where truth and practical utility require it — never for the 
sake of finding fault. In philosophical strictness, there are but -two 
parts of speech, the noun and verb, — the noun, the names of things, 
and the vcrb^ the names of the actions of things. 



rniLosopuicAL grammar. 3-9 

NOUN. 
Q. 3. What is a noun? 

A. A noun is the name of any person, place, 
or thing; as, James, York, Wisdom. 

Q. 4. liow many kinds of nouns are there? 

A. Three, proper, common &nd collective. 

Q. 5. What is a proper noun? 

A. The name of an individual person, place, 
or thing; as, Edward, Baltimore, Ganges. 
Q. 6. Where do proper nouns become common nouns? 

A. Where they are used in the plural num- 
ber, or have a, an or the before them; as, "He 
is the Cicero of his age," "The twelve Cos- 
sars," "Many Catalines," (8) 

Q. 7. What is a common noun? 

A. The name of a sort or species of persons, 
places or things; as, man, animal, tree. 

(8.) "A proper noun is the name of an individual person, 
place or thing." But where a proper noun is used in the 
plural number, it is not the name of an individual person, 
place or thing, but the name of several persons, places or 
things, it is therefore no longer a proper noun. And 
where a, an or the is placed before a proper noun, the noun 
stands for one of a class of persons, &c, distinguished from 
the others of that class, by one of these definers, and is there- 
fore a common noun. 

Words are the signs of ideas; and we can have no more classes of 
words, than wc have classes of ideas; nor can we have more classes o: 
ideas than there are classes of things, for ideas are the images of things. 
In nature there are two distinct classes of things; subsistences, either 
material or immaterial, and actions, the productions of those subsisten- 
ces. All the words, classed under the different divisions, are either 
nouns or verbs, in their primary and essential meaning, but they differ 
from the words which are classed as nouns or verbs, in the manner, in 
which their meanings are signified, with reference to other words. The 
class to which the words, arranged under the different parts of speech 
belong, will be clearly pointed out, and the reason of their separate 
classification given, when I come to treat of the different parts of 
speech. 



40 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 8. What is a collective noun? 
A. A noun of the sigular number which sig- 
nifies many; as, family, army, assembly. 

Q. 9. What belongs to nouns? 

A. Person, number and gender, (o) 

-— a • 

(o) Case in the Latin and Greek languages, is the variation or in- 
flection of the nouns to denote their relations x to other words. Those 
languages have no more cases than they have variations in their nouns, 
The Latin has six variations, and six cases, though these do not all ap- 
pear in the same noun. Latin nouns have often two or more of their 
cases alike, in the same declension, but in another declension, these 
cases will differ and some others agree, so that taking all the Latin 
declensions together, they have six variations, and hence six cases. — 
The Greek has five variations, taking all its declensions together, and, 
consequently, five cases. The Hebrew has, no variation in its nouns, to 
denote their relation to verbs, and therefore has no case. In the Ger- 
man language the nouns have no variations, but their denning articles 
(adnouns) ein, a, or an, and der, the, have four variations; and instead 
of confining case to those definers in which it appears, they extend it 
to the nouns with which they are used, making the noun agree in case 
with the article, though it has no variation by which it could disagree. 
The Germans have fhur cases founded on the variations of their arti- 
cles. The Spanish language also differs from the Latin, Greek, and He- 
brew. The most approved Spanish philologists give their nouns five 
cases, though the noun has no variation. The Spanish article (ad- 
noun) el, the, has five variations; and like the Germans, the Spaniards 
make the case of the noun, depend on the case of the article. The 
Celtic philologists agree with those of the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew lan- 
guages. Their definition of case is — "The cases of those nouns are 
those changes in their beginning or terminations, which serve to show 
their connection with, or relation to, other things. — Connellaris Gram- 
mar, p. 27. Thus we see that in those six different languages case is 
the variation of the noun, or of some word closely connected with it; 
and as the English nouns have no variations, nor the adnouns connect- 
ed with them, they have therefore no cases, in the sense in which case 
is applied to other languages; and to give cases to English nouns, is to 
innovate on the settled principles of universal grammar, as set forth in 
the grammars of different languages. I conceive I have the authority 
of universal grammar, as set forth in the grammar of different lan- 
guages, for dispensing with case in English nouns. When the student 
learns what case is in one language, he ought to know what it is in 
all languages, and this he will know, if he studies a system of philology 
in harmony with the settled principles of universal grammar. The 
variation of the noun, which is called the possessive case, is not entit- 
led to that appellation; because it does not denote possession, in -many 
places where it is used; as, the shoemaker makes and keeps children's 
shoes for sale; the hatter makes and sells men's hats. In neither of 
those cases, is possession denoted. The nouns children's and men's de* 
scribe the nouns shoes and hats, by showing their relation to children 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 41 

PERSON. 

Q. 10. What is person? ■ 

A. Person is the property of nouns and 
pronouns which varies the verb. 

Q. 11. How many persons have nouns? 

A. Two; second and third. The second 
person denotes the person spoken to, and the 
third, the person spoken of. (9) 

NUMBER, 

Q. 12. What is number? 

A. Number is the distinction of objects, as 
one or more. Nouns and pronouns have two 
numbers, the singidar and the plural. 

Q. 13. What does each imply? 

A. The singidar number implies but one; 

(9.) Nouns are never used in the first person, th« pronoun 
J takes the place of the first person singular, and we^ of the 
first person plural. In examples like the following, some phi- 
lologists suppose the noun is in the first person. "This may 
certify, that I John Dill, do hereby give and grant," &c— 
But the verb here as in all such places is in the first person to 
agree with 1, and the speaker speaks of his own name. It 
would not do to say "I John Dill does give and grant," &c, 
nor would it do to say "John Dill do give and grant."— A little 
sober thought will enable the student to distinguish the per- 
son of aaou-ns. If I say my son, hast thou seen the young 
mart? I speak to my son, he is second person spoken to, be- 
cause I address myself to him; but the noun man is third per- 
son, because I spoke of it. But if I say young man, hast thou 
seen my son?*man is in the second person, because he is 
spoken to, and son, in the third because it is spoken of. 

and men; and they do nothing .else: and where those terminations de- 
note possession, they describe with equal clearness; as, "The man's 
house;" "The boy's hat." The noun man's describes the noun house, 
by showing its relation to the noun man; and the noun boifs does the 
.same to the noun hat. These nouns are all adnouns, or nouns adnom= 
inally used. 

5* 



42 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

as, book; the plural implies more than one; as, 
hooks. 

Q. 14. .How is the plural formed? 

A. 1st. By adding s or es to the singular; 
as, hat, hats. 2d. When the singular ends in 
y, preceded by a consonant, the y is changed 
to i and es added; as, berry berries. 3d. If 
the singular ends inforfe, the/* is changed to 
v and s or es is added; as wife, wives, loaf, 
loaves; and some singulars form their plurals 
by changing the form of the word; as, man, 
men, goose geese. Some words from foreign 
languages, retain their former plurals; as, cher- 
ub, cherubim, datum, data; but all such words 
ought to be naturalized, and stripped of their 
alien dress. 

Q. 15. Have all nouns two numbers? 

A. No; some nouns are used only in the 
singular form; as, gold, sheep, grain, &,c, and 
others only in the plural; as, ashes, lungs, rich- 
es, &c, and some nouns have no plurals either 
in form or idea; as, universe immensity, &c. 

Q. 16. Does the plural form of nouns, always denote an 
increase of number? 

A. No; the plural form of nouns frequently 
signify different sorts of things, instead of mere 
increase of number; as, drugs, medicines, 
clothes, wares, joys, and griefs, &c, mean dif- 
ferent kinds or modifications of the tilings which 
the noun denotes. 

GENDER. 

Q. 17. What is gender? 

A. Gender is the distinction of sex. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 43 

Q. 18. How many genders are there? 

A. Three; masculine, feminine and common. 

The masculine gender denotes the male sex, 
the feminine denotes the female sex, and the 
common, either sex. Man is masculine, wo- 
man feminine, and child common gender. 

Q. 19. Is the masculine, or feminine gender ever applied 
to inanimate things? 

A. Yes; but this practice depends on fancy 
and taste, and not on grammatical rule. Mis- 
takes are often made by applying masculine and 
feminine terms to things without life; as, in 
saying of the ship Jupiter, or John Wells, she 
sails well, (p) 

(p) Gender in the English language, is the distinction of sex; and 
strictly speaking, the language has but two genders, the masculine and 
feminine. But many nouns which denoto sex, do not distinguish the 
sexes from each other. I call all those nouns common gender, because 
they denote sex, and one sex as much as the other — they are applicable to 
either. We cannot call the noun parent no gender, because it denotes 
sex, nor can we call it masculine or feminine, because we know not 
which it is. The noun parent applies equally to father or mother. I 
therefore call it common gender. The noun has gender, and yet is used 
for either sex. 

Grammarians generally give nouns a gender called neuter gender, 
which signifies no gender. No possible benefit can be derived from 
this distinction. If nouns have gender, it is necessary to notice it in 
parsing; but if they have not, we need not mention gender; for to give 
a noun neuter gender, is to give it nothing — a poor girl. Masculine 
and feminine terms are often applied to inanimate things. The prac- 
tice is regulated thus: things of strength and majesty are called mas- 
culine; of beauty and productiveness feminine; as, the sun is masculine, 
the moon or earth feminine. Mr. Harris, in his learned work, under- 
takes to prove, from a long list of poetical authorities, that masculine 
and feminine terms belong to things without sex, and gave the reasons 
above stated for their application; and Dr. Priestly, following Mr. 
Harris's authority, and influenced no doubt, by the ill-founded praise 
which was lavished on his book, says, "Thus, for example, the scn 
having a stronger, and the moon a weaker influence over the world, 
and there being but two celestial bodies so remarkable, all nations I be- 
lieve, that use genders, have ascribed to the sun the gender of the male % 
and to the moon the gender of the female." 

In the Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, German, Dutch, Danish, and Swedish 



44 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 

Q. 20. Do nouns ever become adnouns? 
A. Yes; nouns become adnouns, where they 
are added to other nouns to describe them; as, 
&fur hat, the boy's hat. (q) 

languages the Sun is feminine gender; and in the modern Russian it is 
neuter. In the Saxon, the Moon is masculine. The northern mytho- 
logy makes the Sun the wife of Tuisco, one of their gods — a masculine 
wife — a poor companion even for a heathen god. We thus see how ri- 
diculous facts make this visionary theory. If Shakspeare, Milton, &c. 
have, by a familiar prosopopeia, made inanimate things of different gen- 
ders, it was because they followed tne patterns of their Greek and Ro- 
man masters, and adopted the southern, and not the northern mytholo- 
gy. " Figure apart, in language, the names of things without sex arc 
also without gender." — Tooke, p. 45. 

( q ) The Hebrews call nouns, similarly used, nouns in regimen. 
One of the nouns is in what they call the absolute, and the other in the 
construct state. The noun in the construct state generally suffers some 
change either in its consonants, or in its vowel poipts; da' -bar, used with 
elohim', becomes debar' elohim'; and ka'lim, where it is used with ano- 
ther noun, becomes kel-a'; as, kel-a' keseph'; silver vessels. In this 
example the noun in the construct state, is translated into English ves- 
sels, and the one in the absolute state silver. But in the first exam- 
ple, debar' elohim', the noun in the absolute state is translated into 
English, with an apostrophe and s, thus, God's word, and sometimes 
word of God. 

"Of two nouns in regimen, one is frequently employed, as an adjec- 
tive, (adnoun) in order to qualify the other. The principle is regulated 
thus: The second or genitive noun commonly qualifies the first; e, g. 
kela' keseph, vessels of silver, i. e. silver vessels." "Stuart's grammar, 
4th edition, page 105. "This principle is more or less common to all 
languages; but the Hebrew having only a few adjectives, resort to it 
more frequently than almost any other language. In particular, the 
Hebrew is almost entirely wanting in adjectives designating the ma? 
terials of which any thing is made: Hence, kela' keseph', vessels of 
silver, and other expressions of the like nature, are matters of neces- 
sity. But this form of expression is sometimes used, where there is no 
necessity, i. e. whe^e adjectives might be employed." Ibid. 

It is the noun in the absolute state, which becomes the adjective or 
adnoun, in Hebrew, as we see in the above examples; and these nouns, 
which become adnouns,, are sometimes translated into English with the 
si^n of, what is called., the possessive case, and sometimes without that 
eigii. It is as much an adjective in Hebrew, where it would take the 
sign of the possessive case, in English, as where it would not. I hope 
I shall not be considered an innovater, for classing the nouns Laving' an 
apostrophe and s, with adnouns, (adjectives) seeing I am supported 
by the example and authority of the venerable Hebrew. Nor 
do I stand alone in this use of nouns in, what is called, the possessive 
ease. Mr. Wallace and Mr. Jame3 Brown have classed them with ad- 
jectives.. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 45 

Q. 21. Where are the apostrophe and s to be added to 
the noun, which becomes an adnoun? 

A. Where it describes the noun to which, it 
is added, by showing the relation the noun has 
to the one that is added to it; as boy's hats. 
The noun boy describes the noun hats, by 
showing its relation to the noun boy; the hats 
are the kind used by boys. But if the added 
noun describes the noun to which it is added, 
by showing the material which composes it, the 
apostrophe and s must be omitted; as, fur hat, 
not fur's hat. 

Q. 22. What relations do nouns sustain to verbs? 

A. They are either agents or objects, where 
they relate to verbs. But they are used in some 
places where they have no constructive rela- 
tion to verbs. They are agents where they 
perform the actions expressed by verbs, and 
objects "where the actions expressed by verbs, 
or the participle in ing affects them. — Agents, 
where they do something — objects, ,where 
something is done to them. They are indepen- 
dent, 1st, where they are used for titles or la- 
bels, where the name without the assertion 
gives the idea required. 2d. Where the noun 
is personally addressed; as, James, I desire 
you to learn. All nouns in the second person 
are independent. 3d. Where they are placed 
before a participle, without a verb to agree 
with them; as, "Shame being lost, all virtue is 
lost." 

Q. 23. How may a noun generally be known? 

A. By making sense with the word the be- 
fore it; as tlie man, the men, &c. 



46 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

PRONOUN. 
(J. 24. What is a pronoun? 

A. A pronoun is a word used instead of a 
noun, and generally to avoid the tiresome fre- 
quency of the same word; as, Fulton was an 
eminent engineer; he invented steamboats; ice 
owe much to him. 

Q> 25. What belong to pronouns? 

A. To pronouns belong person, number, 
gender and ease, and they are always of the 
same person, number and gender that the 
nouns are for which they stand. 

Q. 26. How many persons have pronouns? 

A, Pronouns have three persons, first, sec- 
ond and third; as, I, thou, he, she or it. The 
first person denotes the speaker, the second 
person, the person spoken to, and the third per- 
son, the person spoken of. 

Q. 27. What is case? 

A. Case is the variation of the pronoun, 
which show its relation to* other words; as, he, 
his, him; he is the man; I saw him; his house. 

Q. 28, How many cases have pronouns? 

A. Three; the subjective, possessive and 
objective; distinguished generally from each 
other, by the different forms of the pronouns; as, 
I, my, me. 

Q. 29. Where must pronouns be in the subjective case? 

A. Where they are the agents of verbs; as, 
he learns Latin; she studies French. 

Q. 30. Where are they in the possessive case? 

A. Where they possess something; as, his 
house. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRA3IMAR. .4? 

Q. 31. Where are they in the objective case? 

A. Where they are affected by the action of 
a verb, or the participle in ing; as, I saw him; 
he is instructing us. 

Q. 32. Ho^v many kinds of pronouns are there? 

A. One; but grammarians generally make 
three; Personal, Relative and Adjective. 

Q. 33. Are the vvoids arranged in these several classes, 
all pronouns? 

A. No; those in the first class, and the word 
tbho in the second, are pronouns, the others are 
4 adnouns. (r) 

(r) The words denominated Relative and Adjective pronoun?; with 
the exception of who, are nothing but adnouns, and require no expla- 
nation which the adnouns do not also require. When the nature and 
use of adncun3 arc explained; the nature and use of these words will 
l}e explained also. "A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun,". and 
rpust consequently relate -to the word for which it stands. Pronouns 
are all relative words; they all relate to the antecedent nouns for which 
they stand. And to call some words -relative pronouns, to distinguish 
them from other pronouns, is like calling" a number of persons human 
beings, to distinguish them from their fellow men. But these words 
do not stand for nouns, and relate to them as pronouns do. Analyze 
Mr. Murray's examples, and their difference will plainly appear. "The 
man is happy; he is benevolent; he is usetV,]." The word he In both 
places refers to the noun man, and stands for it. In proof of this, we 
.cannot, without manifest impropriety, use the noun man and the pro- 
noun he together. We, can say — the man is, happy; the man is benevo- 
lent; the man is useful; but we cannot say with propriety, the man is 
happy; he man is benevolent; he man is useful. A plain proof that h-e 
stands for man, and must .therefore relate to the noun man, for it could 
Eot stand for the noun, if it had no relation to it. 

A slight examination of the words called Relative and Adjective pro- 
nouns, will prove that they neither stand for nouns, nor relate to them 
as antecedent words, and, therefore^ are not entitled to the appellation 
of pronoun?. Who, which, what and -that, are the words which Mr. 
Murray called relative pronouns) but an analyzation of Mr. M's. ex- 
amples, will show that who is the only pronoun among them. "He is 
a friend who is faithful in adversity*' We cannot say who friend, but 
we can Bay, which friend, what friend, or that friend. Who stands 
for the noun friend, but who cannot stand for the noun, where the noun 
etands for itself, the others are added to the noun friend, understood, 
.and therefore they can be used with it. "The bird which su^.g so 
sweetly, .is flywrn" We can say — "the bird, which" bird, &c. and "the 



46 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR 

Q. 34. How many pronouns are there? 
A. Six; I, thou, he she it, who, and their 
plurals, we, ve or you, they. 

bird," that bird, &c. but we cannot say "the bird," who bird, &c. which 
proves that which, and that are added to the noun bird understood, 
which (noun) need not be repeated, because it was just named, and is 
still present in the mind. But if we construct a sentence thus, the 
bird which sung so sweetly, flew away into the wood, and was there 
shot by the huntsman; that (bird) used to cheer me with its sweet and 
warbling notes. We must insert the noun bird after the word that, be* 
cause the noun bird, to which that belongs, was mentioned sometime 
previous, and is not still present in the mind; hence the necessity of re- 
peating the noun bird, that the mind may associate it with the adnoun 
that, which is still present. This is the true philosophical principle by 
which the omission or insertion of the nouns, to which these adnouns 
belong, is regulated. If that is a pronoun, the is also a pronoun, for the 
and that have the same origin, and are substantially the same word. 
See Note n. Mr. M. divided his adjective pronouns into four classes, 
and well he might, for he gave them much to do. To stand for nouns, 
and express the quality of the nouns at the same time. But although 
Mr. M. assigns them the double work of pronouns and adjectives, (ad- 
nouns) their service is not increased by his assignment. In the exam- 
ple, "These trinkets are his" [trinkets,] "Those are hers," [her trinkets.] 
His is a pronoun in the possessive case, possessing trinkets, understood, 
and hers is a pronoun in the compound possessive case, included in it 
the noun understood, which it possesses, and is equal to her trinkets, as the 
words in brackets show. Mr. M's. first class of adjective pronouns arc noth- 
ing but pronouns, in the simple or compound possessive case. "Every man 
must account for himself." Does "every" here stand for man, and man 
stand for itself, in the same place? or is "every''' added to man? For 
the words this and that, these and those, Mr. M's. third class of adjec- 
tive pronouns, see Note (n.) Some, any, one, other, all, sttch, <fyc. ar$> 
included in the fourth and last class. The words one, an and a have 
the same origin, and are but different spellings of the same word. See 
Note (n). How, therefore, can one be an Adjective pronoun, and an 
and a Articles. 

"I said in my haste, that all men are liars." Dees all in this sen- 
tence stand for the noun man, where the noun stands for itself? It must 
stand for a noun, or it is no pronoun. These words, notwithstanding 
Mr. M's. fanciful division of them, are nothing but adnouns added to 
nouns, expressed or understood, and have nothing pertaining to the na- 
ture of a pronoun in them. Mr. Greenleaf, not satisfied with Mr. M'e. 
classification of these words, called them Pronominal Adjectives. A 
name that signifies no more, nor less than Mr. M's Adjective pronouns. 
Perhaps he wished to give his plagiaristic grammar some novelty to 
recommend it. 

I wish to say, once for all, that Mr. Murray, and the numerous tribe 
of grammarians belonging to the Murray School, are mere plagiarists. 
Their grammars contain nothing, except some unimportant classifica- 
tions, but what is to be found in Bishop Lowth's, and Dr. Marsh's 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 49 

<Q. 35. How are pronouns declined? 

A. Pronouns are declined in person, num- 
ber, gender and case. 

Q. 36. What is declension? 

A. Declension in grammar, means any va- 
riation in the form of words; as, he, his, him, I, 
my, me, &c. 

Q. 37. How are pronouns declined, in person, number, 
gender and case? 

A. In the following way. 





FIRST 


PERSON.— 


-Com. U 


en. 




Sub. 


Sing. 




Plural. 
We, 






Poss. 


my or 


mine, 


our or 


ours, 




Obj. 


me, 




us. 








SECOND PERSON.- 


—Com. Gen. 






Sing. 




Plural 






Sub. 

Poss. 

Obj. 


thou, 
thy or 
thee, 


thine, 


ye or you, 
your or yours 
you. 


5 






THIRD PERSON. 






Sing. — Mas. Gen. 


Plural— 


-Corn. 


Gen. 


Sab. 

Poss. 


he, 
his, 




they, 
their, 1 


theirs, 




Obj. 


him, 




them, 






Sing. — Fern. Gen. 


Plural— 


-Com. 


Gen. 


Sub. 

Poss. 


she, 
her or 


s hers, 


they, 
their, 


theirs, 




Obj. 


her, 




them. 







grammars, both of which were published before many of those authors 
were born. Dr. Marsh's is little else than a copy of the Bishop's, 
though it professes to be an improvement. And the Bishop's is, pro- 
fessedly, a translation of the Latin grammar for the English language. 
The Latin grammar forced upon the English Language. I shall have 
occasion to speak of this Latin English grammar hereafter, and of the 
embarrassment it imposes on English philology. 
6 



50 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAB. 

Sing. Plural — Com. Gen. 

Sub. it, they, 

Poss. its, their, theirs, 

Obj. it, them, 

Who is varied only in case, and is thus de- 
clined: 

Sub. who, 
Poss. whose, 
Obj. whom. 

Q. 38. In what case is who where used as an interroga- 
tive? 

A. It is always in the same case with the 
pronoun, which contains the answer; as, who 
read last? he i. e. he read last? whom do you 
see? him; i. e. I see him. 

Q. 39. What are mine, ours, thine, yours, hers and theirs? 

A. They are compound possessive cases of 
their respective pronouns, including both the 
possessive case of the pronoun, and the noun 
which it possesses, and should only be used in 
this form, when apart from the noun; as, these 
books are mine, (my books,) those are thine^ 
(thy books,) these slates are ours, (our slates,) 
those are yours, (your slates,) this is my pen, 
that is hers, (her pen,) and the other is tlteirs, 
(their pen.) 

Q. 40. Are all the pronouns distinguished by gender? 

A. No; the pronouns of the third person are 
distinguished in the singular number; as, he, 
she, it; he is masculine, she is feminine, and it 
is neither but they are not distinguished in the 
plural. The plurals of the third person, and 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 51 

the first and second persons singular and plu- 
ral, are all common gender, (s) 

Q. 41. Does you always stand for nouns in the plural, 
number? 

A. No; you is often used for nouns in the 
singular number, and is used mostly instead of 
thou, (t) 

( s ) The pronoun it, formerly written hit, is the past participle of 
the Moeso-Gothic verb hiatan; it means the said, and when used in 
this latitude of meaning, may stand for nouns of either gender or num- 
ber; as, "It is a wholesome law," i. e. the said (law) is a wholesome 
law. "It is the man," i. e. the said (man) is the man. "I believe it to 
be them," i. e. I believe the said (persons) to be them; and it may also 
stand for a sentence; as, "It happened on a summer's day that many 
people were assembled," &c. The said fact (it) that many people were 
assembled — happened, &c. It, being a participle, belongs as much to 
one number or gender, as it does to another; but it has become the 
general representative of nouns without sex, and is considered as hav- 
ing no gender; yet, it is often properly used to represent nouns which 
have sex. 

( t ) "As you was originally in the plural number, grammarians in- 
sist that it must still be restricted to that number. But national usage 
rejects the arbitrary principle. The true principle, on which all lan- 
guage is built, rejects it. What fundamental rule have we to dispose of 
words, but this, that when a word signifies, one or unity, it belongs to 
the singular number? If a word once exclusively plural, becomes the 
sign of individuality, it must take its place in the singular number. 
That this is the fact with you, is proved by national usage. To assign 
a substitute to its verb, is to invert the order of things. The verb 
must follow its nominative [agent] — if that denotes unity, so does 
the verb." "When you was at Athens, you attended the schools of the 
philosophers." — Cicero Tusc. Quest. Trans, b. 2. 

"On that happy day when you was given to the world." — Dodd's 
Ma ssillon, Serm. 

"You was on the spot where the enemy was found killed." — Guth- 
rie's Quintilian. 

" You ivas in hopes to have succeeded to the inheritance." — Ibm. 6. 5 

"When you was here comforting me." — Pope. 

"I am as well as when you was here." — Gay's Let. to Swift, 

"Why was you glad." — BoswelVs Life of Johnson. 

"These writers did not commit mistakes in the use of the verb after 
yjou — they wrote the language as established by national usage — (the 
foundation of all language.) So is the practice in the United States — 
not merely popular usage, though this, when general, is respectable au- 
thority; but the practice of the men of letters." 

"Where was you standing during'the transaction?" 

"How far was you from the defendant?" 



52 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 42.. When who is the subject of a verb, in what num r 
ber and person must the verb be? 

A. The verb must be in the same person and 
number that the noun is for which who stands; 
as, he who acts wisely, deserves praise. 



"How far was you from the parties? — Judge Parker. Trial of Sel- 
f ridge, p. 58. 

"Was you there when the pistol was fired?" — Mr. Gore. Ibm. 60. 

" Was you acquainted with the defendant at college?" — Mr. Dcxter's^ 
Ibm. p. 60. 

"Was you in the office?" — Att. Gen. Ibm. 68. — Dr. Webster'' s gram- 
mar, p. 25. 

Dr. Webster proves by these quotations that you, where used for a. 
singular noun, has a singular verb. This practice cannot subject the 
student to any difficulty, as he must know whether you stands for a sin- 
gular or plural noun, and then use the verb accordingly. I am pleased 
generally with what Dr. Webster says. It is calculated to establish 
an important principle. But in the sentence which I included in pa- 
renthesis, he is peculiarly unfortunate. If "national usage" is "the* 
foundation of all language," there could be no language before there was 
national usage to found it on; and men must have fixed the meaning 
and use of words, before they had any words to fix the meaning and 
use of. Did men call a town meeting or a convention to fix the mean- 
ing and use of words before they had words, the meaning of which 
they understood? Those who believe language is conventional, be- 
lieve also, that it is the result of human invention; that men invented 
signs to communicate their conceptions of real and visible objects, to- 
each other; and that after a number of those words were invented, and 
their meanings fixed and understood, men improved them by conven- 
tional intercouose into a regular and well defined language. Those who 
adopt this theory, look upon the early stages of language, as being lit- 
tle else than a rude, imperfect, and indigested jargon, unworthy the 
attention of the philologist. In proof of this assertion, a late writer 
(Mr. S. Kirkham,) charges the justly celebrated Home Tooke, with en- 
deavoring to restore the barbarisms of the Vandalic age. But this was 
done no doubt, to discredit his etymologies, which annihilate that au- 
thor's theory of speech. But what he says or can say, will have no ef- 
fect on those who are acquainted with the Diversions of Purley. Whe- 
ther language is conventional, or the gift of God, is of more import- 
ance to the philological student, than it may at first appear. If he be- 
lieves it was conventional, he will overlook the early ages, as containing 
nothing worthy of his attention. But if he believes that it was oP 
divine origin — adapted by the Author of all good, to the condition of 
intelligent beings, who wanted a medium through which to communi- 
cate their conceptions of natural and moral subjects to each other; a 
medium through which God might make known his law to man, who 
is bound to obey it on pain of everlasting destruction, he will look 
with reverence into its primitive stage, where he may see it stripedt 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAK, 53 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

My children; thy parents; his friend; her bonnet; our father; 
your country; their house; whose hat; my father; his son; 
her daughter; your hand; their field, (la) 

Specimen of parsing the noun and pronoun. 
"Her bonnet." 
Her is a pronoun because it stands for the name of the 
person spoken of, third person, spoken of, singular number, 
denotes but one, feminine gender, it signifies the female sex, 
and possessive case because it possesses the noun bonnet. 
Bonnet is a noun because it is the name of a thing, common 
noun because it is the name of a sort or species of things, 
third person, spoken of, singular number, denotes but one. 
(If the noun is masculine or feminine gender, it must be 
parsed as the pronoun her is parsed.) Parsing is showing 
every fact that is contained in a word or sentence; embra- 
cing facts of meaning, facts of use, facts of variation, facts 
of construction, and facts of relation. — This is parsing. 

ERRORS IN GRAMMAR. 

Mine children; thine parents; hers friend; ours father; 
yours country; theirs king. 

(la) My possesses the noun children. My is first person 
and comes from /. (See paradigm, first person, singular.) 
Thy possesses the noun parents. Thy comes from thou, is 
second person spoken to. (See paradigm, second person, 
singular.) His possesses the noun father. His is third per- 
son spoken of, and comes from he. (See paradigm, third 
person, masculine gender.) 

of its adventitious ornaments, standing* in its native simplicity, every 
way adapted to the wants of man. From its native treasures, he will 
be able to draw a flood of light, to assist him in fixing the true meaning 
and use of words. 

Should any think, I say too much in favor of language in its prima, 
tive stage, let them .examine the sublime grandeur of the venerable 
Hebrew, and behold in it evidences of its divine author. Grand, dig- 
nijied, clear, and powerful, over awing the soul, and bringing it into a 
suitable state to adore and worship God, by the clear and instantaneous 
presentation of the sublimest conceptions that can enter into the mind 
of man. In this the Hebrew stands pre-eminent. And also, Home 
Tooke's Diversions ofPurley, and see what his Gothic and Anglo. Saxon 
etymologies do, for fixing the meaning and use of our present English 
words. Those who take this trouble, will not be the first to differ with 
me, and will be amply rewarded for all their labor. 



54 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



ADNOUNS. 

Q. 43. What is an adnoun? 

A. An adnoun is a word added to a noun, to 
describe or define it; or, to another adnoun, to 
modify its meaning, (u) 

( u ) Adnouns are nouns, the names of things added to other nouns: 
to describe or define them; as, a silver spoon. The word silver is, as 
much a noun, as the word spoon is a noun; and conveys as distinct a 
idea. Silver is the name of the material of which the spoon is made. 
It is the name of a thing added to the name of another thing. 

Many nouns drop their terminations, to indicate they are to be join- 
ed to other nouns, as, holiness, holy man, wisdom, wise men, fyc. Holy 
and wise, in these examples, do not vary in meaning, from holiness and 
wisdom; but, in their manner of meaning, they show, by dropping the 
terminations ness and dom, they are to be joined to some other nouns, to 
connect their significations with those other nouns. Other nouns re- 
ceive affixes to signify the same thing; as, gold, golden, wood, wooden* 
health, healthy, and the participial terminations ing and ed. These ter- 
minations show, that these nouns are to be added to other nouns, to 
form a compound term. They give us notice to expect some other 
nouns to which they are to be joined. But these nouns do not lose or 
change their signification by these additions. And many nouns are 
adnominally used without any change in their terminations; as, iron* 
iron pot, &c. 

In the early stages of language, there were few or no adnouns dis- 
tinguished from nouns by termination or form; these distinctions are 
the results of improvement. In proof of this assertion, I need only 
refer to the fact, that the primitive languages have very few ad- 
nouns (adjectives.) The Hebrew language has no adnouns, to de- 
signate the materials of which any thing is made,— See Stuart's 
grammar, p* 165. And some uncultivated languages are still found* 
which have no adnouns distinguished from nouns, by any thing but 
their use and manner of meaning. The Rev. Rev. Jonathan Edwards^ 
D. D., who was critically acquainted with the Mohegan language — the 
language spoken by the Muchhekaneew or Stockbridge Indians, which 
appears, from good authority, to be the parent' of nearly all the lan- 
guages of the north American tribes; their different languages being 
nothing but different dialects of this language. Dr. Edwards says t 
speaking of this language, "the Mohegans, have no adjectives, (ad- 
nouns) in all their language. Although it may at first seem not only 
singular and curious^ but impossible, that a language should exist with- 
out adjectives, yet it is an indubitable fact." We are not however to 
understand from this statement, that the Mohegans had no qualifying 
or descriptive words, for without such words, language would be of very 
little use, but that the words thus used, differed in nothing from nouns, 
Elliott, the missionary^ translated the Bible into a particular dialect of 
this language. 

I call these words adnouns, because their old name adjectives, is not 
indicative of their use. The word adjective is compounded of two LathL 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR: 55 

Q. 44. How many kinds of adnouns are there?. 
A. Two; descriptive and definitive; but 
these distinctions are not always manifest. (2a) 

(2a) The distinction of descriptive and definitive adnouns 
is not always manifest. Where the one gives out, and the 
other begins, cannot be distinctly pointed out. But in 
their general use, the distinction is very plain; as, good de- 
scribes, and one defines. Descriptive adnouns admit of com- 
parison, if their significations admit of any variation, by in- 
creasing, or decreasing their primary or simple meaning. 

words ad, to, and jacio, to put or place, and means put or place to; but 
it does not designate what it is placed to. But the name adnoun, 
is clearly indicative of the use of these words, and is in keeping with 
the the term adverb; the name of words added, or joined to verbs for the 
same purpose, i. e. to describe them. These words are nouns added to 
nouns, and this fact is clearly indicated by the name adnoun. I will 
close this note by a quotation from the learned Home Tooke. 

"If I say .... a golden ring", a brazen tube, a silken string-, do gold 
and brass and silk, cease to be the names of things, and cease to denote 
substances; because, instead of coupling them with ring, tube and 
string by a hyphen thus -, I couple them to the same words by adding 
the termination en to each of them? Do not the adjectives (which I 
have made such by the added termination) golden, brazen, silken, (ut- 
tered by themselves,) convey to the hearer's mind, and denote the same 
things as gold, brass, and silk? Surely the termination en, takes noth- 
ing away from the substantives gold, brass, andsiZfc, to which it is united 
as a termination, and as surely it adds nothing to their signification, 
but this single circumstance, viz. that gold, brass, and silk, are desig- 
nated by this termination ewtobe joined to some other substantive. And 
we shall find hereafter, that errand the equivolent adjective termina- 
tions _ed ig (our modern y) convey all three, by their own intrinsic 
meaning, that designation and nothing else; for they mean, give, add, 
join, — And tlys single added circumstance of pertaining to, is (as Wil- 
kins truly tells us) the only difference between substantives and adjec- 
tives; between gold and golden, fyc. 

u So the adjectives wooden and woolen, convey precisely the same 
ideas, are the names of the same things, denote the same substances; 
as the substantives wood and wool; and the terminating en only puts 
them in a- condition to be joined to some other substantives; or rather, 
gives notice to expect some other substantives to which they are to be 
joined. — And this is the whole mystery of simple Adjectives. (We 
3peak not here of compounds, ful, ous, ly. fyc. 

"An Adjective is the name of a thing which is directed to be joined 
to some other name of a thing .... And the substantive and adjective 
so joined, are frequently convertible without the smallest change of 
meaning: as we may say .... a perverse nature, or a natural perver- 
sity." — Diversions of Purley, vol. II. p, 361-2, 



56 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 45. What are descriptive adnouns, and how are they 

divided? 

A. Descriptive adnouns are those which de- 
scribe the nouns to which they belong; as 
good men, sweet apples, &c. They are divi- 
ded into regular ', irregular and defective. 

Q. 46. What are definitive adnouns? 

A. Adnouns which define, or restrict the 
nouns to which they belong; as, one man. 
ten men, the boys, &c. 

Q. 47. Are adnouns ever varied? 

A. Descriptive adnouns are varied to ex- 
press comparison; as, great, greater, greatest; 
and the definitive adnouns, this and that, are 
varied to agree with nouns in the plural num- 
ber; as, this man, these men, that tree, those 
trees. 

Q. 48. How many comparisons have adnouns? 

A. Two; the definite and the indefinite, (v) 

Definitives are precise and specific in their significations^ 
and therefore, cannot be compared, because comparison 
would so vary their significations, as to destroy their use as 
definitives. Comparison forms a line of general boundary 
between these two classes of adnouns, though there are ma- 
ny adnouns which cannot be compared that are manifestly 
descriptive; and some which admit of comparison, which are 
clearly definitive. See note (3a). 

(v) Mr. Murray says "There are commonly reckoned three degrees of 
comparison, the positive, the comparative, and the superlative." The 
following is his description of those degrees — "The positive state ex- 
presses the quality of an object,, without any increase or diminution; 
as, good, wise, great. The comparitive degree increases or lessens 
the positive in signification; as, wiser, greater, less wise. The super- 
lative degree increases or lessens the positive to the highest or lowest 
degree; as, wisest, greatest, least wise." 

What Mr. M. says of comparison is, as far from the facts in the 
case, as darkness is from light. He makes the comparative degree 
better t an increase of the positive degree good, and the superlative best. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 57 

Q. 49. What does each express? 

A. The definite expresses comparison be- 
tween two objects, or collection of objects, and 
shows that one possesses more of the quality, or 
property than the other; as, James is better 



the highest s>tate or degree to which good can be raised; better is more 
than good, and best more than good or better. When I say James is a 
better boy than John — I do not say that James is more than a good 
boy, which would be the case, if better, was an increase of the positive 
degree good; but, that he possesses more goodness than John does, with 
whom he is compared. In proof of this, let me say, James and John 
are very bad boys, but James is the better boy of the two. Does better 
here mean more than good, where it expresses the quality of a boy, not 
only positively "bad, but very bad? And when I say James, John, and 
Edward, are extremely bad boys, but James is the best boy of the three, 
does best signify the highest degree of goodness, where it expresses 
the quality of a boy, who is so far from being a good boy, that he is 
an extremely bad boy? In these examples better and best are not in- 
creases of the positive good, as Mr. M. teaches, for they both express 
degrees of goodness, so far below positive goodness, that they are 
positive badness. 

But Mr. M. is supported in what he says, by a host of learned men, and 
therefore his sayings must not be called in question. But facts and 
common sense are perfect despots and will not admit Mr. M's. supre- 
macy, though England and America bow submissively, and thousands 
sound his praise. — One fact out weighs one hundred authorities. — A 
celebrated writer once said, on this very subject, "Writers quote author- 
ities to conceal their ignorance, and judges to cover their villainy ." 
There is too much truth in the remark, especially as it applies to wri- 
ters. — One writer advances a theory, without attempting to prove that 
the principles assumed are founded in facts, a second, adopts it, and gives 
the first for authority, and then a third, who gives both the first and 
second for authority, and then a fourth, fifth, sixth, and so on, to a hun- 
dred, or a thousand, each successive disciple giving all his predecessors 
for authority. But what do all these authorities weigh, when laid in 
the balances of common sense. Just as much as the assumed theory 
of the first writer, and no more. 

The mistake into which writers fell, is this.- Comparison ha3 
reference to the simple or positive abstract state of the adrioun, and net 
to the measure of the quality possessed by the -nouns which are 
compared; hence as comparison is a variation of significations, it must 
either increase or decrease the positive significations. This would be 
the case, if comparison had reference to the simple state. But this is 
not the fact. Comparison has reference to the measure of the quality 
possessed by the nouns compared, and shows which possesses the 
greater, or greatest measure of the quality expressed by the adnoun^ 
but does not attempt to show, how much, or how little, either or any 
possess. 



5$ PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR 

than John. The indefinite expresses compar- 
ison between more than two objects, or collec- 
tion of objects, and shows that one of the ob- 
jects possesses more of the quality, or property 
than any of the others; as, Edward is the best 
boy in the school. 

Q. 50. What are regular descriptive adnouns? 

A. Regular descriptive adnouns are those 
which form their definite comparison, by ad- 
ding r, er, more or less to their simple state; as, 
wise, wiser, more wise, less wise, and their in- 
definite, by adding st, est, most or least; as, wise, 
wiser, wisest, most wise, least wise, happy, 
happier, happiest, most happy, least happy, 

Q. 51. What are irregular descriptive adnouns? 

A. Irregular descriptive adnouns are those 
whose comparisons are formed by changing 
their simple state; as, good, better, best; bad, 
worse, worst, &c. 

Q. 52. What are defective adnouns? 

A. Defective adnouns are those that are su- 
perlative in signification, and therefore cannot 
be compared; as, almighty, extreme, univer- 
sal. (3a) 

(3a) Many adnouns which describe the nouns to which 
they are added have no variation of meaning, and therefore, 
cannot be compared. Adnouns which are unbounded in sig- 
nification are of this class; as, eternal, infinite, &c. Some 
of these adnouns will receive the forms of comparison, 
though their sense demonstrates they cannot be compared; 
as, perfect, more perfect, most perfect, but a thing which is 
perfect must be complete in all its parts, and can receive no 
additions, and if any thing is taken from it, its perfection 
will be destroyed, and therefore no variation of form can 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 59 

Q. 53. Do definitive adnouns express comparison? 

A. No. 

Q. 54. Which are the principal defining adnouns? 

A. An, a, the, many, several, this, that, these, 
those, which, what, others, each, every, either, 
neither, some, no, any, all, and all the car din- 
al numbers; as, one, two, twain, three, thirty, 
sixty, &c, and all the ordinal numbers; as, 
first, second, third, twentieth; fortieth, &e. (w) 

Q. 55. Do adnouns ever become nouns? 

A. Yes, adnouns become nouns, where they 
are used with other adnouns, and no noun is 
either expressed or understood to which their 
restrictions or descriptions can be applied; as, 
the chief good, the vast immense, the great 
evil. 

Q. 56. What are adnouns called that are added to other 
adnouns? 

A. Helping adnouns, because they affect the 

vary its meaning — comparison would only be in form, not 
in fact, if it was admitied. The adnouns which show the 
materials of which things are made, and those which are 
formed by changing the terminations of proper nouns, are 
also of this class; as, wooden, woolen, Roman, American, 
&c. 

(w) Many words classed as definitive adnouns, are classed different- 
ly by some grammarians; but all these words evidently belong to the 
I same class. See notes n and r. 

j In addition to what I said about a, an and one in note ??, I would add, 
I that one in the Hebrew is also derived from a verb, and has in Hebrew 
as in English, a verbal origin. The Hebrew ehad, one, comes from 
! the verb yahad, to join, to unite. The Anglo-Saxon agrees with the 
J Hebrew in deriving the word one from a verb. 

The verb in the Hebrew, is the root of nearly all the other words 
I in the language. Some nouns perhaps are excepted. This fact fur- 
I nishes proper ground of inquiry, respecting the classification of words, 
i and if examined carefully, will throw much light on this subject, and 
! show that all words, in their essential meaning, are either nouns or 
verbs. 



60 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAK. 

noun through the adnoun to which they are ad- 
ded, by modifying its influence on the noun, 
(4a). ' 

Q. 57. Are ever adnouns varied to express variation in 
quality? 

A. The syllable ish is sometimes added to 
adnouns to express some slight variation of 
quality; as, green, greenisli, salt, saltish; but 
this variation expresses no comparison. 

Q. 58. what influence have the defining adnouns each, 
every, either and neither, on the verbs and pronouns con- 
nected with the nouns to which they belong? 

A. Theiy require the verbs and pronouns to 
be of the singular number. 

Q. 59. What are the definitive adnouns, what, one and 
other? 

A. What is a compound word, compounded 
of which and that (wh[ich th]at), and is most- 
ly equivalent to that which. One and other, 
when used without nouns, are compound ad- 
nouns, including both the adnoun and the noun 9 
and may be used in the plural number. 

Q. 60. How are adnouns compared? 

A. Adnouns of one syllable are generally 
compared by adding r, er, st or est to the sim- 
ple state, and those of two syllables ending in 
y are compared in the same way; as great? 
greater, greatest — wise, wiser, wisest — happy, 
happier, happiest. Those of two syllables which 

(4a) Adnouns may be used with other adnouns, and still 
be principal adnouns. You may distinguish a principal 
from a helping adnoun by its making sense, when separately 
used with the noun. The helping adnouns will not make 
sense when separately used with nouns. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. '61 

do not end in y, and those of more syllables 
than two, are compared by helping adnouns; 
as, severe, more severe, most severe. 

Q. 61. Are not helping adnouns often used to express 
some variation of the quality or property, expressed by the 
principal adnoun? 

A. Yes; as, good, very good, bad, very bad, 
extremely bad, &c, but when they are thus 
used they never express comparison. (5a) 

Q,. 62. Are not some definitive adnouns confined in their 
use to nouns in the singular number, and others to nouns 
in the plural? 

A. Though adnouns have not two numbers 
as nouns have; yet some definitive adnouns re- 
quire to be used with nouns in the singular 
number; as, a man, one man, that man, 
&c, and some require to be used with nouns 
in the plural number; as, two men, three 
men, some men, &c; others may be used with 
nouns in either number, as ike man, the men, 
which man, which men, &c. 

Q. 63. Do definitive adnouns admit of helping adnouns, 
to modify their definitions? 

A. No; though good writers often use them 
in connection with helping adnouns; but it is as 
proper to say, a few many, as a great many, 
a ten men, as, a few men; but custom has ren- 
dered some errors agreeable. 

(5a) Comparison does not consist in increasing, or 
decreasing the quality, or property of the simple state 
of the adnoun, as grammarians generally teach, but in shew- 
ing that one object possesses more of the quality, or prop- 
erty spoken of, than the other, or others, with which it is 
compared. 

7 



62 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 



Q. 64. How may an adnoun generally be known? 

A. An adnoun may generally be known, by 
making sense with the word thing after it; as, 
a good thing, a bad thing, &c. 



COMPARISON OF ADNOUNS. 



Simple state. 


Definite com* 


Indefinite com 


great, 


greater, 


greatest, 


wise, 


wiser, 


wisest, 


holy, 


holier, 


holiest, 


frugal, 


more frugal, 


most frugal, 


frugal, 


less frugal, 


least frugal. 


EXERCISES IN PARSING. 




Old men, 


some China ships, 




Large trees, 


Solon the wise philosopher, 


A silver cup, 


Alfred the great, 




An iron wedge, 


John's, camel's hair girdle, 


Wise men, 


that beggar's humble request. 


Fresh Smyrna figs, 


ladies' best moroccc 


) shoes, 


Many canal boats, 


fine British ink powder, 


Dry walnut wood, 


most elegant marble 


5 chimneys* 



Pittsburgh cutfiint decanters. 

Warranted cast steel cradle scythes. 

Very old Holland gin. 

Genuine old Madeira wine. 

A gold mounted sword. 

An honest meaning man. 

A snow white linen neck cloth. 

The chief city gate keeper. 

ERRORS IN GRAMMAR. 

John hat is torn. 
Eliza book is on the table. 
Jane is a best girl than Catharine, 
felmina is wisest than Ellen. 
I have twenty boys in school, and David is the better boy 
among them. 

I have a good many scholars, and a some are large girls. 
A few men are wise, but a many foolish. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 63 

John left him hat at those shop, and James gave his to he 
brother. 

Jane and Eliza are good girls, and them shall be reward- 
ed for her diligence. 

John is a bad boy and him shall be punished. 

Jane is a good girl and her shall be rewarded. 

I gave the book to he. 

Of who did you get thathatsl 

I got they of John's Paul. 



VERBS. 
Q. 65. What is a verb? 

A. A verb is a word which signifies action; 
as, the farmers plow their fields; clouds shed 
rain; the miser dies and leaves his gold. 

Q. 66. How many things are to be considered in the use 
of verbs? 

A. Three; 1. The subject or agent, which 
causes or produces the action. 2. The motion, 
change or acting, which the verb denotes. 
3. The object which that action effects; as, 
David killed Goliath. In this sentence, Da- 
md is the subject or agent, killed the action, and 
Goliath the object. 

CRITICAL EXAMINATION OP VERBS. 

Grammarians have divided verbs into active, passive, and 
neuter. But a close examination of the subject will clearly 
show, that these distinctions have no foundation, and tend 
greatly to embarrass the learner. 

If words are the signs of ideas, as all agree, then all ar- 
rangements of words which are not true to the laws of thought, 
are deceptive, and ought to be exploded. To represent 
things in a way that our thoughts do not, and cannot conceive 
them — in which they do not and cannot exist, is, to misrep- 
resent them. If grammars are written to "teach the art of 



04 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

speaking and writing correctly," the rules of grammar shoaldf 
be in accordance with the nature of our conceptions, and the' 
laws of our thoughts. 

The presentations of things, and the perceptions drawn 
from them, are divided into two classes. 

1st. Entities or things, with the qualities, restrictions? 
comparisons, and relations which things, as such, possess 
in themselves, or bear to each other. 2d. Aetions, motions, 
influences, or changes. These two classes, alike in nature, 
in thought, and in speech, inseparably depend on each other, 
and it is needless to say whi€h is the least, or the most im- 
portant. The first class lays the foundation for nouns, pro- 
nouns, adnouns, adverbs and prepositions. The nouns and 
pronouns represent all entities in the universe, in their inde- 
pendent states of existence; and adnouns, adverbs and prep- 
ositions define things and describe the properties or relations 
of them. The verb, participle and conjunction represent 
the actions of things, in all their operations and influences 
— and show how the relations expressed by prepositions are 
produced. 

So far the arrangements of grammar are true to nature. 
But when I say that the verb "expresses neither action or 
passion, but being or a state of being," I ascribe to it the prop- 
erty of the noun or adnoun; for nouns express being — are the 
representatives of all entities, either of matter or thought, 
and adnouns express all the states, situations, or conditions 
of being in the universe of existing things. 

The objections which are or can be offered against the 
activity of four thousand English verbs, appear when brought 
down to their specific statement, to be reduced to three. 

1. The subjects of verbal affirmations are inanimate maU 
ter, and therefore cannot act. 

2. The ideas, denoted by the verbs, do not amount to ac- 
tion, perceivable, real, or fully implied. 

3. The verbs have no recipient objects expressed or un~ 
derstood, and are not capable of being explained, as signi- 
fying any effects or influences which affect objective words. 

The fallacy of the above propositions, and the theory built 
upon them, with their consequent errors in practice, it is hop- 
ed, may be satisfactorily explained. The causes of these er~ 
rors are inattention, either to the definite meaning of terms; 
to the science of physical and intellectual nature, as connect- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 65 

ed with speech, or to the proper application of words to 
things, in the special case. 

If we examine the verbs called neuter, we shall find that 
they differ in nothing from many of those called active, by all 
the advocates of neuter verbs; and that the objections offer- 
ed against the action of some verbs, lie equally against the 
activity of many others, that are admitted by all to be active. 

To Support, — Active. 

All the dictionaries make this verb active. But if I say, 
the pier supports the bridge, I attribute action to inanimate 
matter, where no visible action can be perceived. In this 
sentence, inanimate matter is made the agent of action by the 
friends of the neuter theory, and that too when no action is 
perceived. And yet want of animation in the agent, and per- 
ception of the action, are the reasons given for a large num- 
ber of our verbs being neuter. 

To Smile, — Neuter. 

"A sensible wife would soon smile him into good humor." 

Addison. 

"To smile our cares away." 

"He smiled the wrinkles from the brow of age." 

In these sentences we see that the verb smile has an ac- 
tive agent; performs a visible action, and affects an object; 
clears the brow of age from the wrinkles of care; and yet 
we are learnedly told that smile is a neuter verb; notwith- 
standing every rule for active verbs applies to it. 

To Sleep, — Neuter. 

"The sick man slept a good deal, last night, and it had an 
excellent effect upon him." 

He slept a good deal of sleep, and the sleep which he slept 
had a good effect upon him. 

"Then cometh he to his disciples and said unto them ; sleep 
on now, and take your rest." 

The noun sleep is the resulting effect of the verb's action. 
Sleep as a noun did not exist until some person slept if. We 
see in the first sentence, that* the sleep which affected the 
man, was produced by his sleeping; but if sleep is neuter^- 
does nothing! — how does it come, that this doing nothing 
produces something, and that something does another some- 
thing. In the second sentence, the all-wise Saviour com*- 

7* 



66 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

manded his disciples, according to the neuter theory, to do 
nothing. 

To Live, — Neuter. 

"IF! could live my life over again, I should try to employ 
it to better advantage." 

"We have but one life to live on earth; how important that 
we improve it to the best purpose." 

"He lives a very comFor table life." 

"The life that I now live in the flesh, I live by the Faith 
oFthe Son oFGod." Gal. 2:20. 

In all these sentences the noun life is the resulting effect of 
the verb's action; and yet we are learnedly told, to live 
is a neuter verb — expressing "neither action or passion, but 
being or a state oF being." The very reverse is true — the 
verb produces its own objective word. The only difference 
between the verb in these and in any other sentences, in which 
it is or may be used, is, that in these its objective word is ex- 
pressed, and in others it is understood, and may be expressed 
without affecting either the grammar or the sense. 

To Die,— Neuter. 

"Let me die the death oFthe righteous." — Bible. 

"Reader, go tell at Sparta that we died here in obedience 
to her laws." — Inscription at Thermopylae. 

Are we to conclude that Leonidas and his companions per- 
Formed no action, in obeying the laws of Sparta. 

"I choose to die innocent, rather than to live guilty." 

IF there is such a thing as a neuter verb, it cannot be used 
in what grammarians call the imperative mood. We can 
command a person to do, or not to do, but we cannot, iF we 
intend to speak sense, command a person to performno per- 
formance — to act no action — to do no doing; and yet neuter 
grammarians use all their neuter verbs in their imperative. 
mood. To command a person to do nothing is certainly a 
very useless expenditure oF breath. 

Adverbs of manner, time and place, when added to verbs? 
represent the manner oF the action expressed by them, or 
the time or place in which it was performed. And iF there 
is such a thing as a neuter verb, this verb could never be us- 
ed with those adverbs. But those adverbs are used. with. the 
yerbs denominated neuter, which: Fact is a clear proof that 
they are active. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 67< 

The past participle in every possible case, denotes the re- 
sulting effect of the verb's action or change. If th£ verb go 
had no object, nothing could ever be said to be gone. The 
thing which one moves, or which rnoves itself, until it ceases 
to move, is then moved. 

And if there be such a thing as a verb, that does not express 
action or change, and which has no object, that verb can nev- 
er form a past participle; but all verbs, except those that are 
defective, have past participles, and therefore must express 
action, and have objective words. 

The advocate of neuter verbs will lay his knife on his ta- 
ble* and ask his pupil, what action the knife performs, lying 
on the table? The student, not seeing any motion, will con- 
clude the verb lie is a neuter verb, expressing no action, be- 
cause he sees not the knife move; and the teacher will boast 
confidently, that he has set aside the theory of active verbs. 

But the vferb lie in this example, expresses the very same 
kind of activity, the verb support does, in the example, "the 
pier supports the bridge." There is as much action in the ly- 
ing of the knife, as in the supporting of the pier, if we make 
action consist in motion. But action does not consist in 
motion, nor do grammarians of the neuter school so consider 
it; or they would not make support an active verb- — for it ex- 
presses no visible motion. The verb support, expresses the 
active influence which the pier exerts,, by which the tenden- 
cy of the bridge to fall is counteracted. The bridge exerts 
the attraction of gravitation, draws itself to the earth, and 
would come to the ground if the pier did not counteract, by 
the interposition of its strength, the power of gravity in the 
bridge; and for this reason, the pier does something. — The 
verb support expresses what it does. 

The verb lie expresses the very same kind of active influ-r 
ence. The knife, in lying on the table,, counteracts as fixed,, 
and as well defined a law of nature, as the pier does in 
supporting the bridge. The smoke of a pipe or cigar, 
puffed from the mouth of a smoker, could not lie on the ta-^ 
ble with the knife. And why not? If lie is a neuter verb,, 
and expresses no active exertion, smoke might be as able to 
do nothing as the knife. The smoke cannot lie on the table,, 
because the atmospheric air, being a fluid, which possesses 
more specific gravity than smoke, displaces the smoke and. 
causes it to rise to a region, where the air has less density. 
The knife has more specific gravity than the air, by whicta 



68 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

means it overcomes the natural tendency of the air, which 
strives to occupy the place of the knife. It overcomes a 
power, which has energy enough to lift the smoke to the 
clouds. Surely this is doing something. — The verb lie ex- 
presses that something. 

To illustrate this principle still further. — Take a piece of 
iron, and a piece of wood, and lay them on the bottom of a 
vessel, then fill the vessel with water; the iron will re- 
main on the bottom, while the wood will be forced to the 
top. Does not the iron do something which the wood can- 
not. The iron overcomes the resistance which the water 
makes to its occupying a situation at the bottom of the ves- 
sel. The wood cannot, and therefore, must give place 
to its more powerful rival, the water. The only difference 
between these illustrations is this, — the water is a visible flu- 
id, and the air an invisible one. 

Should any object, that this reasoning is too philosophical, 
and abstruse, to be comprehended by children, I reply, 
1 contend for philosophical activity, and it is competent for 
me to call to my aid the principles of philosophy; and these 
principles prove as clear as a sunbeam that all verbs are ac- 
tive; and if children are not philosophers, many of them will 
be, and should therefore, be taught such principles as they 
will find to be in accordance with truth, when their minds 
arrive at maturity. And suppose, they cannot comprehend 
the subject of philosophical activity, can they comprehend 
the neutrality of the old systems'? John loves Jane; here 
"loves," is an active verb. Can the student see what John 
does to Jane in loving her? Is there any more perceptible 
motion in love, than there is in any of the cases of philosph- 
ical activity above noticed. The verb lie expresses as 
much visible or perceivable action *as the verb love. "The 
wild goose flies from the lakes of Canada, to the Atlantic 
ocean." Fly is a neuter verb, "expressing neither action 
nor passion, but being or a state of being." Can the child 
comprehend how fly is a neuter verb, while he sees the goose 
moving over his head. He sees clearly the thing you re- 
quire him to believe is not true. And as it is much harder 
to believe, what we know is not true, than it is to believe 
what we cannot understand, the strength of this objection 
stands out, with all its force, against the old grammars. 

What "being or state of being" is expressed by the verb 
fly? Is it the state of being of the goose?— is this the sig- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 6^ 

nification of the verb fly? If it is, then when I say the kite 
flies, the verb flies expresses the state of being of a goose. 
Or does the verb at one time represent the state of being of a 
goose, and at another the state of being of a kite, or some 
other thing? If it does, its meaning is very equivocal and 
unsettled; or does it, wherever used, represent the same sort 
of action, without regard to the agent that performs it? 

An examination of the verbs called Auxiliary, with explan- 
ations and derivations. 

The verbs called auxiliaries, though few in number, are so 
important, that no theory which misrepresents them can be 
otherwise than bad. 

These verbs are represented, in the existing systems of 
grammar, as having no meaning of their own, being used 
merely for the purpose of modifying a portion of the words 
which have significations. "And yet, unaccountable as it 
may appear, these helping verbs are employed to help each 
other, where according to the neuter theory, there is no ac- 
tion implied, nor specific meaning to be modified. What is 
the philosophical nature of that help, which is either given or 
required, where there is no action to be done or expressed?' 
To call a set of words auxiliaries, and say they are used to 
conjugate the moods and tenses of other verbs, is no explana- 
tion, and is only calculated to deceive. Which of the colle- 
ges is sufficiently expert, in the art and mystery of neutrality, 
to interpret what is meant by the mood and tense of a "condi- 
tion of being?" What do these verbs denote by their mean- 
ing as words? for, if they have no absolute meaning, then cer- 
tainly there is no difference of meaning between one of them^ 
and another, more than between two noughts in arithmetic." 
—CardelL 

"The compilers differ very much from each other, in mak- 
ing out the arbitrary list of words called auxiliaries. Mr» 
Harris in his learned work has seven; Mr. Murray ten; some 
have more and some less — which is right? What is the es- 
sential character of an auxiliary, or the difference between 
it and ^principal verb? Why is the same word auxiliary at 
one time, and principal at another; active and neuter, tran- 
sitive and intransitive, in the same sentence? and by what 
evidence shall the learner distinguish these opposing charac- 
ters in the same verb? Does it vary its absolute or relative 



70 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

meaning, where it has no meaning at all? For a particular 
example, what is the difference in do, be, have, or will, as 
auxiliaries, and principal verbs?" — Ibid. 

What is the grammatical or philosophical difference be- 
tween the neuter helping verb to be, and the neuter principal 
verb to exist, when they are in all the dictionaries used to de- 
fine each other, and neither means any thing distinctly; but 
expresses a state of being in general, and not one condition of 
existence more than another? 

k\\ the believers in helping verbs reckon among the num- 
ber, be, can, do, have, may, shall, and will; some add must, 
let &nd ought. 

It is somewhat singular, that taking either list, these words 
neither differ from other verbs, nor agree with each other, in 
any one principle assumed, as the basis of their auxiliary 
character and classification. 

Instead of multiplying grammar rules and exceptions, for 
each phrase which language can employ, it will prevent 
much confusion, to begin by finding a meaning for those im- 
portant words, too long represented as having no real signi- 
fication. 

An examination of those words, according to rational sci- 
ence, and the most elegant practice, will present them in a 
light very different from the mysterious technicality in which 
they are involved. 

Am is a compound of Ah, breath, and to breath light, or 
life, and ma, the hand, and to hand. Ma in early times was 
used to represent a large portion of the actions done by man., 
it took the general meaning to make, to perform, to operate, 
execute, produce, manufacture. 

The word ma was first used to operate with the hand as an 
instrument, and next with any means of effective production 
substantially equivalent. So the compound ah, ma, contrac- 
ted to am, [Ah Ma] signifies to exercise the functions of light- 
ing or lifting one's self,-— to perform the act of breathing. — 
Am has now in its contracted form, the very same meaning; 
from which it appears, the verb has a specific significa- 
tion, and represents those actions, or exertions by which ex- 
istence is maintained. 

In the practicable application of the verb am, it can have 
no variation in its objects, and objective words are therefore, 
unnecessary. One man is not contemplated as inflating the 
lungs of another; but each as performing these vital functions 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 71 

for himself. It is not necessary to say, I breath breath, or 
vivify myself; this is unavoidably understood in saying lam, 
and therefore requires no grammatical rule. Am has no va- 
riation in its manner of meaning, because it is confined to the 
first person singular of the indicative mood. — (See CardelVs 
Grammar, page 124.) 

The noun am comes from the Hebrew noun a-heyeh, Ex. 
3: 14. It is derived from the verb ha-ya, pronounced 
haw-yaw, the point Qamets having the sound of a in all, by 
suffixing awlef, or the verb comes from the noun by awlef 
suffering aphaeresis. The noun means life, spirit, the vital 
principle, and in its highest application, Self -Existent Being, 
the Life-giving Power. The verb means to breathe. This is 
expressed in tfoe pronunciation of the word, the verb haw- 
yaw is pronounced, by a native Jew, by the inspiration 
and expiration of the breath, with a strong guttural aspira- 
tion. This is its true exposition where it is applied to animate 
things; and in its application to inanimate things, it means to 
maintain the attributes of existence, of whatever kind they 
are, by doing what is necessary to prevent the destruction 
of those attributes. And when either an animate or inani- 
mate being is no longer able to exert, or maintain those func- 
tions it must cease to am, i. e. to be. 

The verb to be is made up of six different etymons, taken 
to make out the correlative parts of moods and tenses, and to 
relieve the monotonous repetition of sounds which their fre- 
quent use would otherwise occasion. Those radical verbs 
are, am, are, be, is, were and was. Their meanings are sub- 
stantially the same. Those radical verbs are also defective, 
which will appear from what follows. 

Are, art, air, these are the same word, which in modern 
practice is slightly and conveniently modified in form; but 
without any alteration of meaning. Thou art, is contracted 
from thou arest. 

"They are" means first, they air or are themselves, they 
supply themselves with air; they vivify, inspirit, and preserve 
themselves by means of air. Second, they are air; they in- 
hale or imbibe air; as they drink drink; sleep sleep; breathe 
breath; they enjoy the enlivening influence of air; and when 
applied to the lower orders of creatures, they continue them- 
selves in air — they maintain their hold on existence. — (See 
the explanation of to be at the end of this article.) 

Be is from the Saxon verb beon, (Gothic bin, Danish ben,) 



"72 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

which signifies to live, to breathe, to maintain the qualities and 
exercise the functions of animal life; and when applied by- 
analogy to matter, to take, possess, or hold some state of be- 
ing among existing things. 

Is, signifies to exist, (being a contraction from the radical 
word,) to stand forth; to exhibit one's self; to take or hold 
some stand, or position in the universe of existing things. Is 
always denotes self action. Is, like other verbs, has a verbal 
noun, or an equivalent idea, necessarily implied: as It stands 
its standing; it exists its existence; it holds its place, and acts 
its acts, &c. 

Were, wert, werth, worth, werde, tvord. These are all 
variations of the Danish verb varer, which means, to inspirit, 
to enliven, to exert vitality, or the life-maintaining principle. 
They were they inspired themselves, they pmsessed vitality. 
— And when applied to the minor gradations of being, they 
retain the constituents of their being — they maintain their 
hold on life. 

Was is derived from the Gothic verb wesan, to be, to exist. 
The verb denotes self action. Was is confined to the past 
tense of the indicative, and used only in the singular. It is 
now used as the singular of were; the meaning of both words 
being substantially the same. 

Can, past tense could, is from the Saxon word cunnan T 
(Danish kan,) which signifies to know, to be able, to have 
sufficient moral or physical power. To con, to ken, to cun? 
are different spellings of the same word. They have all the 
same meaning; to see, to understand, to be able. The essen- 
tial idea of can, see and know, is precisely the same. 

"And ignorance of better thing makes man, 
Who can not much, rejoice in what he canV 

cowper. 

"Of every witte somewhat he can 
Out take that him lacketh rule, 
His own estate to guyde and rule." 

GOWER. 

i 
Of every art somewhat he knows, 
Except that to him lacks rule, 
To guide his own affairs. 

"Jason, she cried, for aught I see or can (know) 
This deed," &c. 

These authors, we see, used can, as an equivalent to know. 
Many other authorities might be cited, but my object is brev- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GBAMMAK. 73 

try. That can denotes the potential mood, is simply because 
knowledge is power. 

May is from the Saxon word magan, which signifies to be 
possible, to have physical power 9 , to be able. A slight exam- 
ination will show that all power must be resolved into two 
kinds — physical energy, and moral skill. The word may de- 
notes one, and can the other. An elephant may carry a 
heavy load, an orator can make an eloquent address. And 
as actions take place in consequence of power to do them, 
may and can are generally followed by another verb in the 
infinitive mood. 

Do, past tense did. Do, (Sax., don, Dan., deon) signifies 
to practice, to perform. I do write is a mere contraction, 
and in grammar and in fact, means I employ or exert myself 
— I do my endeavor to write. It is not common in modern 
style to insert the verbal object after do, when do precedes 
another verb, in what is considered its helping office; as, do 
you to know. When I say, I do write, and, I exert myself 
to write, I express the same idea, and the grammatical order 
is the same. The first is the most elegant, but not the most 
grammatical. Its elegance is the effect of the ellipsis, and 
not of the grammatical construction. 

Have, past tense had, ($&x.,habban, Dan., haban, Span., 
haber, Ger., haben, French, avoir, Lat., habeo, Greek, echo.) 
The chief difficulty with this word, under the imaginary 
character of an auxiliary, results from the mistake of its im- 
port. It is represented as denoting mere possession; but 
this is a mistake. It signifies, 1. To possess some object; as, 
I have a house. 2. It represents situation or condition; as, 
I have my leg broken, or I have my arm shot off. 3. It 
signifies obligation; as, "I have to perform my vow." 4. 
To contain; as, "The work has many beauties, and many de- 
fects." 5. To sway or dispose of in any way; as, I have a 
paper in my hand, and* I want to have it destroyed. 

"The reason why the old perfect tense in grammars, 'al- 
ways conveys an allusion to present time,'' is the simple and 
strong one, that the verb have which makes it, is always 
present tense. The past participle connected with it, is, 
without exception, an" adnoun "referring to the object of the 
verb."— {See Perfect Tense.) 

It is important to have this verb well understood, and to 
have language taught according to fact and common sense, 
8 



74 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

which would indeed be a very different having from what we 
now have. 

Must, (Sax., most , Dan., moeten, moast,) signifies to be in 
bondage or constraint, to be bound, or compelled; as, I must 
depart this evening; some power or circumstances to which 
it is necessary to conform, require me to depart. I yield or 
acknowledge the obligation. 

Shall, past tense should, (Sax., scealan, scylan,) signifies 
to owe, to be under constraint, obligation or duty; as, The 
subject shall bear true allegiance to his king. The citizen 
should be faithful to his country. 

Will, past tense would, (Sax., wellan, Goth., toilyan, Dan., 
willen, Ger., wollen, Sw., vilja, Dan., ville, L.,volo, velle. 
Fr., vouloir, It., volere,) signifies to exercise volition, to de- 
cide, — wish, inclination. In extending will to objects not 
having volition, it signifies inherent disposition, principle, or 
tendency; as, a bullet will sink in water, and a cork will 
swim; water will run down hill, and smoke will ascend. — 
Will in its essential principle is an active tendency in all 
things disposing them to change, and to one kind of action 
or change rather than another. 

The word will as traced through the principle languages 
of the earth, from early times, with the physical and mental 
principles, with which it is connected, is extremely impor- 
tant and interesting; but this is not the place for extended 
illustrations. 

The difference in use between shall and will, is very 
simple, when the words are understood. Shall always re- 
lates to external necessity, obligation or requirement, and 
will to inherent disposition, aptitude, or tendency, the acts 
flowing from, or produced by those inherent principles; as, 
"The moon will rise this night, in its own regular course, 
and according to the inherent laws of its nature; it shall one 
day be extinguished, in conformity with a superior law of 
power, to which it shall and must yield obedience." 

We read in the homilies of the Saxon-English Church, 
"To him alone we shall us devote." Chaucer says, "The 
faith we shall to God," i. e., we owe to God. Shall, is al- 
ways to owe a debt, duty, obligation, reasonable service, 
and must is simple bondage, or physical restraint. 

The verb to be is thought to have stronger claims to the 
character of neutrality than any other. It can hardly be 
necessary to say any thing more on this verb, seeing the 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 75 

Etymons, which make its correlative parts of vwod and tense, 
signifies activity. But as the friends and advocates of the 
neuter theory, give it as an incontestible proof of their theory, 
I will trouble the reader with a few additional remarks. 

"The knife is on the table." In this sentence the verb is 
expresses the exertion of active influence, as much as any 
verb in the language. Is expresses the being of the knife, 
and if the knife does any thing to maintain its being, the 
verb is expresses that something. There are two principles 
in nature diametrically opposed to each other, and their op- 
position is active and powerful, Cohesive Attraction and Ca- 
loric. Attraction labors to draw together, or to consolidate 
into one mass the material universe; and heat or caloric ex- 
erts itself to dissolve every material substance in nature. 
These two opposing principles, as agents appointed by the 
great Creator, keep things in their present conditions, by coun- 
teracting each others influence. Attraction is a principle 
inherent in matter, a principle which is inseparable from 
| matter, and which every portion of matter exerts. Caloric 
I is a simple element, — (is so considered by philosophers.) 
Natural substances do not all exert the attraction of cohe- 
sion to an equal extent; hence some are more easily dissol- 
ved than others. Phosphorus and potassium are decompo- 
1 sec by the heat of common air, ice and butter by summer 
I heat, and sand itself by the heat of a glass furnace. If 
the knife did not do something that potassium or phosphorus 
cannot do, it would soon dissolve into an aeriform state, and 
its owner have some trouble to find it, and more to use it. 
Put the knife into a furnace in full blast, and the principles of 
cohesion will soon be overcome, and the matter which 
composes the knife lose its solidity, and the knife its identi- 
1 ty. When I say the knife is on the table, I convey the idea 
that the knife maintains its being in that situation, that it 
1 counteracts the influence of caloric, which operates to dis- 
\ solve it. If the knife did nothing it would not remain long 
1 on the table, and the verb is expresses what it does, and is in 
philosophical strictness active. This i3 so plain that I need 
not add another word. To deny it is to deny the settled 
| principles of philosophy. And though this reasoning and 
I these explanations are too philosopical for children, it surely 
; does not follow, we must teach them principles founded in 
error, because thsir minds have nor sufficient maturity to 
comprehend the principles of thuth. It is better not to 



76 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

learn, than to learn what we must unlearn. I mean this re- 
mark to apply to the errors of grammar, and not to the com- 
mon systems of grammar, composed of error and truth. 

TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

"The verb active is called transitive, because the action 
passes over to an object, or has an effect on some other thing; 
as, the tutor instructs his 'pupils. Verbs neuter may prop- 
erly be denominated intransitive, because the effect is confi- 
ned within the subject, and does not pass over to any object;: 
as, I sit." — Murray's Grammar. 

When I say, the doctor bleeds his patients — patients is in 
the objective case, according to the above construction — the 
action passes from the doctor to his patients. But when I 
say the doctor bleeds himself, the verb is intransitive, (neu- 
ter) because the action remains with the doctor. But the- 
truth is, the verb, in the one case r is as active as it is in the 
other, and has as direct,, and as distinct an object. 

"Bonaparte lost the battle of Waterloo." This sentence 
according to all the teachers of the Murray school, is the di- 
rect and literal assertion that Bonaparte performed the ac- 
tion of losing that battle. How stands the fact? He did ev- 
ery thing in his power to prevent the loss. How then did he 
perform the act? He did not perform the act. He was the 
cause of the battle which eventuated in his loss, and conse- 
quently the cause of the loss, but not the performer of it. 

"Solomon built the temple." Solomon was the cause of 
the temple being built, but he did not perform the act of 
building it; this was done by other hands. 

"The geese by their gabbling saved Rome from destruc- 
tion." They performed an action which in its train of conse- 
quences saved Rome — their gabbling waked the soldiers, the 
awakened soldiers flew to their arms, rushed to battle, slew 
the Gauls, and saved the city. 

"The infant in America inherits a farm in England." — 
How does he perform the action? He, as a cause, gives to 
the chain of legal title a different direction from what it 
would otherwise take, and prevents another person from 
holding the farm as rightful owner. 

How does the miser perform the transitive action of leav- 
ing his gold? By the neuter act of dying? 

We see from these examples of the verbs called transitive* 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAS. 77 

which are quite sufficient for our present purpose, that it is 
not necessary for the action to pass directly from the subject 
to the object, but that the subject lay the foundation in the 
chain of direct, and necessary causes and effects, with which 
the action stands connected, and with which the mind at once 
connects it, as with the first link of its causal being. This 
first cause produces an effect, which in its turn, becomes the 
cause of some other effect, and each produced effect becomes 
a cause, and a link in the chain of causes and effects through 
which the mind traces the action directly to the primary 
cause — the cavse of all the causes and effects. 

INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

"Intransitive verbs are such as have action, but no object 
affected by that action." What kind of action can that be, 
where there is motion or change, and nothing moved or chan- 
ged — a movement and nothing moved? In the name of com- 
mon sense did any one ever hear of such an action? No 
where except in neuter or inoperative grammars: but that is 
a matter which very wise men have settled, in a way that 
common sense has nothing to do with. It is proved by an 
overwhelming throng of great scholars, that there are four 
thousand verbs in the English language expressing this kind 
of intransitively active^ operation. It is the fundamental 
principle of all the grammars and dictionaries. A man 
would deserve a place in a mad house, if he was crazy 
enough to talk about common sense, in opposition to such 
authority and learning. 

The verb walk is an intransitive verb, expresses action 
that affects no object. When I walk on the floor or on the 
ground, is not the floor, ground or whatever I walk on, af- 
fected by the action of walking. Should I walk on my 
neighbor's toes, he would be able to bear testimony to the 
fact, that my walking affected an object. And should any 
serious consequences follow, such as mortification, requiring 
amputation; and should he sue me for damages, could I come 
into court and plead not guilty, because walk is an intran- 
sitive verb; has no object — And as I only walked on his 
toes I could not affect them; seeing walk has no object, and I 
did nothing else, and therefore could not be guilty of inju- 
ring him. Would any jury give judgment according to this 
theory, or would they declare that walk affected the man r 

8* 



78 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

and affected him seriously too; and that as I was the agent 
of the verb walk, I must be accountable for the effect produ- 
ced by it, and accordingly find heavy damages against me. 
And must a theory of grammar be imposed on the republic 
of letters, by the influence of great names, which would vio- 
late the self-evident claims of common justice, and which 
must be discarded from our judicial tribunals, to secure the 
rights, and protect the lives and property of our fellow-citi- 
zens? Tell it not! Let science blush! and hide its head : , 
unless it will repent and bring forth fruits meet for repent- 
ance! 

"The bird files" Flies is an intransitive verb. But 
does not the bird affect the air by flying through it? The 
horse runs. Does not the horse affect the ground by run- 
ning on it? I might multiply examples, but the principle is 
so plain that it needs no further illustrations. 

But it may be objected, the prepositions in all such cases 
govern the objective word, and therefore, the verb cannot. 
It is self-evident the verbs affect the nouns, and as nouns are 
objects where they are affected by the actions of verbs, these 
nouns are objects of verbal action; and as verbs are transi- 
tive which affect objects, these verbs are transitive because 
they affect an object. And should I admit that prepositions 
affect the following nouns, (which would be an admission 
averse to truth,) it would not prove the vet bs did not affect 
them also. The truth is prepositions do not govern objec* 
tive words in English, nor any other language. (See notes 
on prepositions.) 

PASSIVE VERBS. 

U A verb passive expresses a passion or & suffering, or the 
receiving of an action, and necessarily implies an object ac- 
ted upon, and an agent by which it is acted up6n; as, Penelope 
is loved by me" — Miwray's Grammar. 

In this example* given fo illustrate the passive verbs, the 
action passes from me to Penelope — Penelope is the object of 
the verb loved, if indeed it is a verb, and me the subject; 
and yet me is in the objective case, and Penelope in the sub- 
jective. All agree that every verb must have an agent, but 
if loved is a verb, me must be its agent, and Penelope its ob- 
ject. This inconsistent definition will not apply to hundreds 
of the words called passive verbs; as, the thunder is heard 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAE. 79 

by wte. The action of hearing does not pass from me to the 
thunder. "The blow is received by me" The receiving 
does not pass from me to the blew. "The pain is felt by me" 
The feeling does not pass from me to the pain" The blow 
is given by me" The action does not pass from me to the 
6/010, but from me to some other person or JAirag 1 . "The vio- 
lence is suffered by me" The suffering does not pass from 
me to the violence. 

To feel, to suffer, to hear, to conceive, &c, are all active 
verbs — how then can other verbs which mean the same thing, 
in the same way, be passive; or where is the dividing line be- 
tween action and passion, when they so mingle, that the same 
action is half one and half the other? 

"Those mighty spirits lie raked up with their ashes, in 
their urns; and not a spark of their eternal fires glows in a 
present bosom." — Johnson's Sejanus. 

What is the grammatical difference between lie raked up, 
and are raked up? 

DIALOGUE BETWEEN A TEACHER AND HIS PUPIL. 

T. Poor Dennis was drowned by the side of the Indian 
wharf. 

P. Did the side of the Indian wharf drown him? 

T. O no! how ct>uld that be? 

P. How was it then? 

T. Not having strength of mind to bear his misfortunes, he 
jumped into the dock and was drowned. . 

P. What was the verdict of the corner's jury? 

T. Suicide, or self-murder. 

P. 0,1 thought by your speaking, that he only suffered 
the action? 

T. To be sure, it is a pdssive verb, but we ought to exert 
ourselves to be better acquainted with what it means. 

If the influence of wrong teaching and habit was not ex- 
•tensive, it woujfl not roqnire much illustration to show, that 
the past participle in what is called the passive verb, is a 
mere ad noun. 

When I say the man is dead, the word dead describes the 
new condition that the man has been placed in by the act of 
dying. The past participle is an adnoun, and always, de- 
scribes the condition that the noun is placed in, by the effect 
of the verb's action. 



80 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

The English language has no passive verbs or voice, in the 
sense which other languages have, but conveys the same 
idea by adding the past participle to the agent of the verb 
to be. This will appear from what follows. Amo, I love. 
Am-or, I am loved. Here the passive voice of the Latin 
verb amo, is translated by adding the English past partici- 
ple of the same verb to the agent of the verb am. This par- 
ticiple is added to I, the agent of am, to show the condition 
in which the participle loved places /. And the participle 
is used here, just as it is used in every other place; there is 
nothing peculiar in its use in this case, and it requires no ex- 
planation which is not required to understand its use, in any 
other situation. Tupto, I strike, tuptomai, (passive voice,) 
I am struck. This is the very same principle, the past par- 
ticiple added to the agent of the verb am. The Latin and 
Greek languages have different forms to denote the different 
voices of their verbs. The Latin has two forms and two 
voices. Amo 7 active, and am-or, passive. The Greek has 
three forms and three voices. Tupto, active; tuptomai, pas- 
sive, and tupsomai, middle. The Hebrew verb has seven 
forms, and may be said to have seven voices; but the He- 
brews call them conjugations, kautal, niktal, kittele, ku-tal, 
hik-et-le, hauket-al, hith-kaut-tale. But as the English 
language has no variation in its verbs to denote a passive or 
reflexive signification, it has therefore no passive or middle 
voice, much less passive verbs — a kind of verbs unknown in 
the grammars of the learned languages, and though treated 
of in the English, cannot be found, for no such verbs exist. 
The passive voice or verb in the Spanish is just what it is in 
English, the past participle added to the agent of the verb to 
be, (ser and estar,) in all its moods and tenses. And this is 
the case also in German, — "Ich wer'de geliebt, I am loved." 
Neither of those languages have passive verbs or voices. — 
And the distinction only increases the labor and embarrass- 
ments of the student. The classification of passive verbs 
elucidates no principle or fact that cannot he better under- 
stood without the labor of studying such a classification, and 
is therefore an imposition on the English student. 

Q. 67. What belong to verbs? 

A. To verbs belong person, number, mood 
and tense. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. &t 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

Q. 68. What are person and number? 

A. Person and number, when applied to 
verbs, mean the changes which the verb under- 
goes, to agree with its subject, or agent in per- 
son and number; as, the horse runs, the hor- 
ses run, he is gone, "Thou art the man," we 
are ready. 

Q. 69. How many persons have verbs, and what is the 
sign of each? 

A. Verbs have three persons, first, second 
and third. The first has no sign, the second 
hast st or est , and the third has s or th, though 
all verbs have not s or th in the third person; 
as, / love, thou lovest, he loves. These signs 
belong only to the singular number. The verb 
in the plural number is the same in all its per- 
sons, that it is in the first person singular, ex- 
cept the verb am, generally written be. 

MOOD. 

Q. 70. What is mood? 

A. Mood is the manner of representing ac- 
tion, with regard to the agent or cause by which 
it is produced. 

Q. 71. How many moods have verbs? 

A. Twb; the Indicative or assertive, and 
the Infinitive, divided from each other by per- 
sonal relation; they are distinct, and under the 
one or the other, every verbal action is ex- 
pressed. 

Q. 72. How does the Indicative mood represent action? 

A. The indicative mood indicates, or de- 
clares a thing, in a direct personal relation to 



82 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

the subject or agent which produces the ac- 
tion; as, John studies Latin, William learns 
Greek, &c. All verbs that have a direct per- 
sonal relation to their agent or cause, must be 
in the Indicative mood. 

Q. 73. In how many ways does the Indicative mood ex- 
press verbal action, or how many kinds of assertion does it 
contain? 

A. Three; affirmative, negative and inter- 
rogative; as, I go, I go not, who goes? 

Q. 74. How does the Infinitive mood represent verbal 
action? 

A. The Infinitive mood expresses action, 
which has no direct personal actor, expressed 
or implied; as, the fire is kindled to warm the 
room; I require you to go; they are collecting 
a subscription to build a church, (x) 

(x) To, pronounced too and sometimes written too, which is the 
sign of the infinitive mood, is not well understood, nor is it defined, in 
any system of grammar, or in any dictionary which is now before the 
public. Mr. Walker assigns to five meanings as an adverb, and seven, 
as a preposition; but he does not attempt to distinguish between its ad- 
verbal and prepositional significations. Dr. Webster assigns it twenty- 
eight significations. This he does by giving us a few sentences in 
which to occurs, and notations for all the rest; but he has not given us 
its primary or intrinsic meaning, in any place, as a proof that it de- 
notes what he says it does. He confesses, in a note, that his differ- 
ent significations are not the significations of to; but of the words used 
with to. We would not expect to hear, after wading through twenty- 
eight meanings of to, that these meanings were signified by some other 
words, and not by to; and that the general meaning of to signfied mo- 
ving toward a place or object. Its particular meaning remaining still 
to be given. We are told, it is sometimes an adverb, sometimes a pre- 
position, and sometimes the sign of the infinitive mood. 

I propose to show that to is a noun, and that it has one uniform sig- 
nification; that its meaning is the same whether used adverbally, pre- 
positionally, or as the sign of the infinitive mood. The word to is from 
the Gothic noun taui or tauhts, which means act, effect, consummation,, 
end, which noun is the past participle of the Gothic verb iaujan, which 
signifies terminated, ended, finished. To has the very same meaning 
in English that it has in Gothic; it means end, whether used as a pre 
position, adverb or as the sign of the infinitive mood. And this is ita 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAB. 83 

REMARKS ON MOODS. 

The different assertions or declarations made by the Eng- 
lish verb, are not made by the verb aione^for the verb where 
alone contains but one assertion, or declaration; but by the 
independent meaning of the words connected with it, making 
its indication or assertion either affirmative, negative, or in- 
terrogative, and therefore cannot form a proper ground for dif- 
ferent mood?. If we admil that the connection of other words 
with verbs which modify their meaning forms moods, we shall 
be rich in moods, far beyond Greece or Rome; for if can is 
permitted to form a Potential Mood, and if, a Conditional 
Mood, need should form an Indigent Mood, dare, a Coura- 
geous Mood, and feel, a Sensitive Mood. But how two 
words that never coalesce, which meet and part, and form 
new connections as freely as any words in the language, can 
be considered as a mood of one of themselves, is certainly 
very difficult to conceive. 

In the learned languages the verb alone makes the asser- 
tion of whatever kind it is. In English the assertion is made 
by the aid of other words. Those different forms of the 



meaning in every example given by Mr. Walker, or Dr. Webster. I 
will not take the time necessary to test this meaning- of to, by applying 
it to those examples, which I could easily do; but will illustrate it by 
some examples more suitable. To must always be preceded by a verb 
or participle, either expressed or understood, because it signifies the 
end of action; as, "I am going to town." Here I declare iheend of the 
act of going; this action ends at or in town, and this fact is indicated 
by the word to. "I intend to love." To here shows the end of my in- 
tentions,— intend ends in the future act of loving. "I require you to 
go." My requiring ends in your future going. Go is the end of 
the requirement. "They are collecting a subscription to build a 
church.'' To, in this sentence, signifies the end of collecting, and is 
placed before the verb build, to show that collecting is designed to end 
m build. I might introduce many more examples to prove what I 
said above, and go through the lists given by Mr. Walker and Dr. 
Webster, and show that to in every place means end, but I forbear, 
believing that what is said, is sufficient to enable the student to make 
the application himself. Where to is placed before a noun, it indicates 
that the action of a verb terminates at or in that noun; and where to 
is placed before a verb, it indicates that the action of some other verb 
terminates in that verb. And this is the reason why the infinitive 
mood must be preceded by a verb in the indicative, expressed or under- 
stood, or by a participle. To indicates that some previous action ter- 
minates m the verb to which it is prefixed, and consequently the infin- 
itive verb must be future to the verb or participle which precedes it— 
To m English, as in Gothic, is a verbal noun* 



84 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Greek and Latin verbs, which express the different kinds of 
verbal action, form a proper foundation for their different 
moods. But the English language has no such peculiarities, 
and requires no such regimen. The facility with which the 
English verb will combine with other words, which modify 
its meaning, is the peculiar felicity of our language, and gives 
it, in this particular, a decided advantage over the learned 
languages, with their clumsy apparatus of four or five modal 
forms of their verbs, in each voice, varied through five or 
ten tenses, giving from one to five hundred variations to 
their verbs. From this perplexing verbiage our taciturn fore- 
fathers happily delivered us. But it is to be lamented, that 
the improvers of our simple, but comprehensive language, 
have introduced into it this exotic clumsy literary apparat- 
us, and still defend it by the imposing names of Greece and 
Rome. The languages of those once flourishing republics 
require such an arrangement, but ours does not. The wants 
of our language are very dissimilar. The introduction of the 
Latin moods, and tenses, into the English language, has 
greatly embarrassed it, and drawn many tears from the eyes 
of English students. It is high time that those Latin-Eng- 
lish grammars were laid aside, and the English language ar- 
ranged according to its own nature and wants, (y) 

(y) The verb am-o, to love, in Latin, has five variations to express 
the manner in which verbal action, is signified in that language, and 
five moods. — Indicative am-o, subjunctive am>em, imperative am-a or 
am-ato, infinitive am-are. The Greek verb tupto, to strike, has five va- 
riations. — Indicative tupto, optative tuptoimi, imperative tupte, and 
infinitive tuptein; the subjunctive and the indicative are the same in 
Greek, in the present tense first person singular; but in the plural they 
differ, and they also differ in the different persons, and in some of their 
different tenses. So the Greek has five moods founded on the modal 
forms of the Greek verb. The Hebrew has three modal forms, and 
three moods — indicative, imperative, and infinitive. These variations 
do not all appear in the letters of the verb; but in the letters and vowel 
points. — Indicative kautal, to kill, infinitive kautole abs., ketol, cons., 
imperative ketol; second person mas. ketle, fem., where the modal va- 
riation appears.* These languages have no more moods than they have 
modal forms of their verbs. The Spanish language follows its vene- 
rable predecessors. It has five modal forms, and five moods. — Indica- 



* I spell the Hebrew words with English diphthongs, and use 
the final e, because 1 can by these means, more nearly represent the 
sound of the Hebrew vowel point; this method I know is not common, 
but I think it the best. To use single vowels for the Hebrew points, 
will not give the Hebrew pronunciation. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 85 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

This mood causes many grammatical inaccuracies.— 
When we state a dubious supposition, the verb is used with- 
out flection; but when we wish to represent a supposition, 
as matter of fact, the verb is regularly inflected. 

Mr. Murray says, "It may be considered as a rule, that 
the changes of termination (for the subjunctive mood) are ne- 
cessary when two circumstances concur: — 1st. When the 



live amo, I love, conditional, amaria or amdra, I should love; imperative 
dma, love thou; subjunctive dme, I may love; infinitive amdr, to love. 
The German has four variations in some verbs, and consequently four 
snoods; as, bre-chen, to break; indicative brack, I break; sub. bra-che, 
I may break; imp,6ric/i, break (thou) infinitive bre-chen, to break! 
Though the distinction of form between the indicative and subjunctive 
moods in German, does not appear in the first person, and" present 
tense of all their verbs; yet in some of the other persons of the present 
tense, it does appear; as, liebt or lie-bet, he, she or it loves, ind., lieben, 
he, she or it may love, sub. These examples of Latin, Greek, Hebrew', 
Spanish, and German usage, prove that the variations of the verb to 
denote the manner of representing verbal action, is the true and set- 
tled foundation of moods. Those languages, venerable by age, or 
highly esteemed for classic excellence, know nothing of the practice 
of making moods by auxiliary verbs. This practice is an innovation 
on the settled usages of languages and ought to be discarded forth- 
with. 

Bishop Lowth, when he formed his English grammar, (it would 
seem, thought it would not do to have fewer moods and tenses in En- 
glish than in Latin,) introduced into English all the moods and 
tenses of the Latin grammar. Both the folly and impropriety of this 
course, is apparent from this fact; a regular verb, in English, has but 
six variations; including both its participles, and the Latin verb -am-6 
has about 160; in^uding its participles, gerunds and supines. A less 
number of moods or tenses in this language, would not provide for the 
classification of the verb in all its forms, and consequently be an imper- 
fect classification of the language—yea a defective one. The Latin 
language requires all its moods and tenses, to exhibit the verb in all its 
uses, and manner of uses— to take up all its forms. But to give all 
these moods and tenses to the English language, which has but seven 
variations in any verb, except the verb to be, and that has but ten, is 
like building one hundred and sixty stalls, to stable seven horses in 
and require, at the same time, a horse to be in every stall. The Bishop 
might as well have given us the moods and tenses of the Greek, which 
classifies the variations of the Greek verbs, which are about five hundred. 
And it is the misfortune of the English student, that the writers on 
grammar, with but few exceptions, since the time the Bishop wrote, 
have not thought it safe to differ from his Grace, 
i The English verb has two variations and two moods, indicative, / 
we, infinitive, to love. See note (ad.) 

y 



$6 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

subject is of a dubious and contingent nature; and, 2d. When 
the verb has reference to future.time. In the following s&i- 
tences, both these circumstances will be found to unite: "It 
thou injure another, thou ivilt hurt thyself." "If he continue 
impenitent, he must suffer."— Murray's Grammar, 8vo. vol. 
1, p. 207. (%) 

( z ) In both these examples, Mr. M. violates his own rules. The 
assertion, thou wilt hurt thyself, has the very same dubiety and futuri- 
ty, that the assertion, If thou injure another, has; for the one depends ex- 
clusively on the other, and yet the verb wilt hurt (for they are used as one 
verb) is in the indicative mood, and the verb injure,in the subjunctive, 
We may say in the language of an eminent scholar, 

"Strange such a difference there should be, 
"Twixt tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee." 

In the second sentence, what kind of justice is it, to make the certain 
punishment expressed by the indicative verb must suffer, depend on the 
doubtful guilt of contingent impenitence expressed by the subjunctive 
verb continue? All that is said to explain this mood harmonizes in one 
incidental property — It is uniformly inconsistent. 

No man has yet attempted to use a subjunctive mood, in the English 
language, without contradicting both himself, and the expounders in ap- 
plying its absurd "rules." This will appear, by a few quotations from 
the best writers: . ■ 

"If a book does not appear worthy of a complete perusal; if there be 
a probability that the writer will afford but one prize to divers blanks, 
^."—Doctor Watts. 

The verb be is here in the indicative mood, or the sentence is bad 
English; the verbs does and be are certainly in the same mood. 

"A tame serpent was taken by the French when they invested Mad- 
ras, in the late war, and was carried to Pondicherry, in a close carriage. 
Bnt from thence he found his way back again to his old quarters, which 
it seemed he liked better, though Madras be distantfrom Pondicherry, 
above one hundred miles. "—Lord Monboddo. 

The verb be is here in the indicative mood; for it declares a well as- 
certained fact, that the distance from Pondicherry to Madras, is more 
than 100 miles. '■ , . 

"Taste is certainly not an arbitrary principle, which is subject to the 
fancy of every individual, and which admits no criterion for determin- 
ing whether it be true or not."— Blair's Rhetoric. 

In this sentence, this master of Rhetoric used the verb be in the in- 
dicative mood, for not one of the "rules," given for the subjunctive mood , 
applies to the verb be in this sentence. Neither doubt nor futurity is 
hprp pxDressed. 

We see that Mr. M. and those who addopted Bishop Lowth's sub- 
iunctive mood, run into contradiction and inconsistency. Mr. M's. ex- 
amples, "If thou injure another thou wilt hurt thyself," "If he contin- 
ue impenitent, he must suffer; 1 are both good grammar, though they 
clearly contravene the rule laid down by Mr. M. In the first sen- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 87 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The Potential mood presents many objections; but I shall 
notice only one: "I can write" is the present tense of the 
verb to write, in the potential mood. This mood is intro- 
duced into our language to show some of the ways in which 
verbal action is expressed; and is here used to point out the 
manner in which I perform the present action of writing. Re- 
collect the verb write is present tense, (time) consequently the 
action must be present action. But I do not now write, nor 
do I say that I write; I only say that I can write, that I have 
power to write. I now possess power to perform the act of 
writing, which is not yet begun; and consequently if I ever 
use this power, and perform this act it must be in some fu- 
ture time. And yet a host of grammarians, eulogised by the 
literary Revieivs of two continents, place this verb in the 
present tense. 

The verbs in the present tense of the potential mood, all re- 
present actions yet to take place, and consequently in a fu- 
ture tense or time. But grammarians have denied this mood 
a future tense, though they have represented by it nearly 

tence, the verb injure does not agree with (what Mr. M. considers its 
agent or nominative case) thou the second person, and the verb wilt does, 
though according to Mr M. they are in the very same situation, both 
having reference to future time, and both expressing doubt. 

But this is not the fact, the verbs are very differently situated; in- 
jure is in the infinitive mood and wilt is in the indicative; injure is in the 
future tense, and wilt in the present. Resolve the sentence, by supplying 
the ellipsis, and this will instantly appear. If thou shouldest injure 
another thou wilt hurt thyself; injure and hurt are botti in the infinitive, 
following the indicative verbs should and will. The verb continue, in 
the second sentence, is also in the infinitive mood following the indica- 
tive verb should understood; thus, If thou shouldest continue, (fee. The 
verbs in the infinitive mood have not the sign to before them to indicate 

| the action of some other verb terminates in them, because they follow 

1 the verbs shall and will. — (See prin. 80.) 

What Mr. M, calls the subjunctive mood is one verb understood, in the 
indicative mood, and another expressed in the infinitive; the expressed 
infinitive verb has not the sign to before it, because it follows one of 
those verbs (understood) which require the verbs following, in the infini- 
tive mood, to drop the sign to. In proof of this solution, you can sup- 
ply the indicative verb in every one of Mr. M's. examples. And the 
reason Mr. M's. subjunctive verbs are not varied to agree with their 
agents, is they have no agents; they are in the infinitive mood, and the 
verb in the infinitive mood has no agent, and therefore needs not vary 
to agree with it. 



88 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

one half of all the future actions which the English verb ex. 
presses. 

The verb can, which is given as the sign of the potential 
mood, is from the Saxon wo^rd cvnnan, to know, to be able, 
to have sufficient moral or physical capacity. "lean write" 
"/ have power to write" "I am able to write" are equiva- 
lent expressions. In the last two the verb is in the infinitive 
mood, which always refers to future time, (which I willfully 
shew when I come to speak of tense,) and the verb write, in 
the first sentence, is just as much future, as it is in either of the 
latter, and is also in the infinitive mood, for this same reason 
— Universities, Colleges and a host cf learned men to the 
contrary notwithstanding. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

The Imperative mood is measurably harmless, and its 
continuance would give the student of grammar very 
little trouble; but truth and consistency require that it be 
expunged. 

The imperative mood in the English language, has no agent 
or nominative, either expressed or understood. This will 
appear evident by analysing a few sentences: James, come 
to me. In this sentence, James is in the independent state, 
because the noun James is the subject of a direct address; 
James come thou to me; James and thou, in this sentence, 
are both in the independent state, being the subjects of di- 
rect address, and meaning the same person. But if I say, 
James, thou comest to me, James and thou are not in the 
same state, though they mean the same person, because thou 
is not directly addressed. In this sentence, I tell James to 
whom I speak, what he does, and thou is the subject of the 
verb, which makes this affirmation. John, learn thy lesson. 
John, learn thou thy lesson. In the last sentence, John and 
thou are in the same state, because they are both directly 
addressed; thou in this sentence is not the subject of affirm- 
tion, and therefore cannot be Subjective, or Nominative. — 
Thus we see, that what grammarians call the nominative 
case understood to a verb in the imperative mood, is the 
subject of direct address, and not the subject of affirmation, 
or author of action. 

Verbs in the imperative mood, are all put by grammarians in 
the present tense. But if we examine this subject closely, we 
shall find that all these verbs refer to future time. It is said 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 89 

that commands, exhortations, entreaties, &c, all of which are 
given by this mood, must be in present time. Let us examine 
a sentence, or an imperative expression. Go, used with autho- 
rity, is equivalent to, / command you to go, I require you to 
go. Th e relations existing between the speaker and the per- 
son spoken to, and the manner of the address, acquaint the 
person addressed, with the will of the speaker, and his own 
obligations to comply. But the verb go does not express any 
command or exhortation, but the action which the first per- 
son wishes the second to perform, (the command or exhorts - 
tation being understood from the circumstances of the case, 
and therefore need not be expressed,) which action the sec- 
ond person has not commenced, nor can he commence it ur- 
til after he learns the wishes of the first; consequently the 
action expressed by the verb go, belongs to the future, and 
not the present time. In the' two last expressions, go is in 
the infinitive mood, but the meaning and circumstances of 
go, in the first expression, are precisely the same, that 
they are in these last, and why should not the verb be in the 
same mood? The only difference is, in the last, the conditions 
which place go, in the infinitive mood, are expressed, in the 
first they are only implied; and to express what is implied, 
will put the first verb in the infinitive form also. Now as ev- 
ery verb in the imperative mood has implied conditions con- 
nected with it, (things understood,) the expression of which, 
will always require the verb to be in the infinitive mood, can 
there be any foundation for an imperative mood in the Eng- 
lish language? 

The verbs in the imperative mood, are not inflected to agree 
with their subjects, and the reason is obvious, they have none, 
as we have just seen. And as the want of 'personal relation 
constitutes the infinitive mood, these verbs must belong to 
that mood, for the reason, they have no such elation, (ab) 

(ab) J am supported by the Hebrew, in making- the imperative 
mood future tense. The imperative in the Hebrew, has always a future 
signification. The future tense and the imperative mood,' has the 
same ground form, out of the Kal. conjugation; and they have the 
same ground form in Kal., except the verbs with future Pattahh. "The 
imperative mood has only the second persons, when an imperative 
sense for the first and third persons was needed; the Hebrews employed 
those persons respectively of the future tense." Stuarts grammar, 
p. 83. The verb in the Hebrew, is distinguished by termination in 
the second persons of the imperative, from the second persons of the fu- 
ture tense, and therefore, forms a different mood, though it has the very 
same signification, 

9* 



90 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

TENSE, 

Q. 75. What is tense? 

A. Tense m6ans the variations, or inflections 
of the verb to distinguish the different pe*riod& 
of time, in which verbal action is performed. 

Q,. 76. How many tenses are there? 

A. Three, present, past and future, distin- 
guished from each other by the form of the 
verb; as, I love, I loved, I am to love. 

Q,. 77. What does the present tense express, and how is 
it distinguished? 

A. The present tense expresses action be- 
gun and not finished; as, I live, James studies* 
John loves, and is distinguished by the verb be- 
ing in its radical form; as, I love. 

Q. 78. What does the past tense express, and how is it 
distinguished? 

A. The past tense expresses finished action? 
action performed in past time; as, I lived, John 

1 ' ■ • — ' — V 

The future tense and imperative mood in Hebrew, having the same 
signification, are only separated by form in the second persons. But 
the English imperative and future, having the same signification and 
form, are the same, and ought not to be separately classed. In my clas- 
sification of the verb, in this particular, I am sustained by the Hebrew. 

The Spanish grammarians give the imperative a future signification. 
"The future has often the signification of the imperative in the second 
person, as, amaras a Dios, detodo tu corazon, thou shalt love God with 
all thy heart, no robaras, thou shalt not steal." Sales 1 Grammar, p. 15. 
These quotations prove that the future and imperative, though different 
in form, are the same in time and signification. But it may be asked, 
what do you gain by making fewer distinctions and classes? I answer, 
I give the student less to learn, and nothing to learn that he does not 
comprehend the reason of, and at the same time teach him all, and more 
than all, that those teach him, who require him to learn the whole rou- 
tine of their compounded classifications. I teach the student) no dis- 
tinction which he may not comprehend the reason of, and when he 
comprehends the reasons of the distinctions, he will be able to distin-. 
guish. But distinctions, which are not founded on distinguishable ba* 
»ee, tend to bewilder the student, and prostrate his energy. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 91 

studied, and is distinguished by the affix ed or 
d only, when the verb ends in e, or by some 
change in the form or termination of the verb; 
as, love, loved, gather, gathered, write, wrote, 
bend, bent, (ae) 

Q. 79. What does the future tense express, and how is it 
distinguished? 

A. A verb in the future tense expresses ac- 
tion yet to take place; as, I intend to go to Bal- 
timore; and it is always distinguished by the 
prefix to, either expressed or understood; as, 
to love, to hate, I heard him sing, i. e. to sing, 
(ad) 
— _ — — » , 1_ 

(ac) The early practice was to double the verb of the present tense 
either to denote a repetition of the action, or to recal the event which 
was past. This practice is continued to a great extent in some modern 
languages, and is still used in some instances in our own; as when we 
say, the heart goes pit a pat, in repeating" its pulsation. The past tense 
may be made in English by postfixing the duplication of the verb do. 
This verb was anciently the letter d with some vowel sound, but what 
that sound was is uncertain. It appears to the eye, do, da, de, and 
others; this was doubled to mark the past tense: do do, da da, de de, 
&c, twice do, the doing repeated, and by easy transition to did or done. 
This verb, thus thrown into the past tense, was appended to others; as, 
the vine which they plante-de-de and water-de-de, contracted to planted 
and -watered, such as the done act of planting and watering has made 
it. And by this means the duplication of the verb was prevented, in ex- 
pressing past time. Do is the only verb that is doubled to express past 
time, the duplication of which is contained in the contraction did. 

But the past tense is not formed by the aid of do, as an auxiliary, as 
grammarians generally teach and maintain, but by the duplicated form 
of do, being added to the verb to signify its duplication or past tense. — 
The practice of making tenses, by the aid of verbs called auxiliaries, 
has no foundation in the structure or wants of our language,, and is 
overthrown by primitive usage. 

Should any contend for tenses formed by the aid of auxiliaries, 
because the past tense can be formed by postfixing did, the duplicated 
form of do, to the verb, I would ask, what auxiliary forms the past 
tense of do? To his question, I presume, they will find difficulty in 
giving an answer. 

( ad) Some may object that to is a preposition, and though it is placed 
before verbs in the infinitive mood, is no part of the verb; and therefore,. 



D2 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 80. Have all verbs in the future tense the prefix to ex* 
pressed? 

A. The verbs hid, can, do, dare, feel, hear, 
let, may, mast, see, shall and will, on account 

the English verb has but two forms for tense, and no variation for mood. 
And that if form is the proper ground formood and tense, the English 
language has but one mood and two tenses. Some philologists have 
contended, the English verb has no mood, because, as they conceived, 
the verb has no modal variation; not apprehending the word to, was a 
part of the verb. 

This is one of the most important principles of language, and one 
which is less understood than any other — one which Mr. Murray and 
his adherents, have not even mentioned. Home Tooke says, and no 
writer is entitled to more credit — "All those common terminations in 
any language, of which all nouns or verbs in that language equally par- 
take, (under the notions of declension or conjugation,) are themselves 
separate words, with distinct meanings; which are therefore added to 
different nouns or verbs, because those additional meanings are intend- 
ed to be added occasionally to all those nouns or verbs. Those termi- 
nations are all explicable, and ought all to be explained, or there will 
be no end of such fantastical writers as Mr. Harris, who takes fustian 
for philosophy." 

"In the Greek verb Lenai (from the ancient Eo or the modern Eimi:) 
In the Latin verb /-re, and in the English verb to-kie or to-hi, (A. S. 
Higan;) the infinitive terminations enai and re make no more a part 
of the Greek and Latin verbs, than the infinitive prefix to, makes a 
part of the English verb hie or hi. — The pure simple verb, without any 
suffix or prefix, are in Greek, I (or Ei:) in the Latin I; and in the En- 
glish hie or hi. These veibs, you see are the same, with the same * 
meaning, in the three languages; and differ only by our aspirate." 

"In the Greek boul-omai or (as anciently) boul-eo, or boulo, boul only 
is the verb; and omai, or eo, is a common removable suffix, with a sepa- 
rate meaning of its own. So in the Latin vol-o, vol is the verb and 
o, a common removable suffix, with a separate meaning. And the 
meaning of Eo in the one, and o in the other, I take to be Ego; for I 
perfectly concur with Dr. Gregory, Sharpe and others, that the per- 
sonal pronouns are contained in the Greek and Latin terminations of 
the three persons of their verbs. Our old English ich or ig (which we 
now pronounce I,) is not far removed from ego. Where we now use 
will, or the old English verb was or wol, which is the pure verb with- 
out prefix or suffix." — Diversion of Purley, vol. II. p. 364 — 5. 

What this learned author says is confirmed by the Hebrew. The 
variations of the nouns and Verbs, for person, number and gender, (for 
verbs have gender in Hebrew,; are made by affixing fragments of pro- 
nouns to the nouns or verbs; and the future tense is made by prefixing 
parts of pronouns to the verbs. 

It would be satisfactory to the student, to give the Hebrew paradigms 
of nominal and verbal suffixes, but I have not Hebrew letters, without 
which, it cannot be done; and the English scholar would not be able 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 93 

of the frequency of their use, require the verbs 
following them to drop the prefix to in the future 
tense; as, I can read, and not / can to read, 
I heard you sing, and not to sing, I will run, 
and not to run, &c. And when the verb con- 
tains the will of a first person, addressed to the 
agency of a second, to do, or not to do some 
action, expressed in an imperative, precative, 
exhortative or permissive manner, the verb 
drops the prefix; as, go, come, O! come, &c. 
(ae) 

Q. 81. Have both moods three tenses? 

A. No; the indicative has but two, and the 
infinitive only one. 

Q. 82. Which tenses belong to the indicative mood? 

to understand them, if they were given. And this is true of the En. 
glish, so far as tense is concerned, and I believe it is also true with re- 
spect to person, though I have not the means of demonstrating- it — 
The past tense is made by suffixing- the duplicated state or form of do 
to the verb; see note (ad;) and the future tense is formed by prefixing 
the Gothic noun taui or tauhts, which signifies end or termination, and 
it adds this meaning to the verb and nothing else; see note (x.) This 
prefixed noun, forms both the infinitive mood and future tense, and to 
is just as much apart of the verb as ed is, or any of the Latin, Greek, 
or Hebrew prefixes or affixes are parts of their verbs. The English 
language is less declinable than many others, because its nouns, ad- 
nouns, verbs, &c, have received fewer additions to vary their radical 
meanings. This is a subject of vast importance to the philological 
student. 

(ae) The manner, of these different kinds of expression, and the cir- 
cumstances connected with each, contain the conditions which require 
the verb to be in the future tense; and those conditions may be express- 
ed without affecting either the sense or grammatical construction of 
the sentence, and when expressed, the prefix to must be used. The 
verbs, in these different forms of expression, do not contain an expres- 
sion of the command, precation, exhortation, or permission given; but 
represent, the actions which the first persons wish the second to do, 
and the doing of these actions must follow the command requiring them, 
for a command, &c, cannot be obeyed Until after it is given — and ifso the 
verbs expressing the obedience must be in the future, and not in the 
present tense. 



04 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAS. 

A. The past and present tenses belong to the 
indicative mood; as, I love, I loved. 

Q. 83. Which tense belongs to the infinitive mood? 

A. The future tense belongs to the infinitive 
mood; as, I intend to love. 

Q. 84. How many kinds of verbs are there? 

A. Three; regular, irregular and defective* 

Q. 85. What are regular verbs? 

A. Regular verbs are those, which form their 
past tense, and past or descriptive participle 
in d or ed; as, love, loved, I am loved. 

Q. 88. What are irregular verbs? 

A. Irregular verbs are those, which do not 
form their past tense and past or descriptive 
participle, by adding d or ed to the radical verb; 
as, write, wrote, written. 

Q. 87. What are defective verbs? 

A. Defective verbs are those, which are used 
only, in some of their moods and tenses or 
which want some of their participles; as, must, 
ought, quoth, &lc. 

Q. 88. What are the verbs called that are carried as far 
as possible from their primitive state? 

A. Participles; because when they are thus 
removed from their primitive state, they par- 
take of the nature of adnouns and nouns. 

Q. 89. How many participles does a verb form? 

A, Two; the present or active, always end- 
ing in ing; as; rule, riding, and the past or de- 
scriptive generally ending in e, d, n or t; as, 
done, loved, seen, fought. 

Q. 90. What is the conjugation of a verb? 

A. The conjugation of a verb is the distri- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 95 

bution of the several inflections, or variations 
in its different moods, tenses, numbers and 
persons. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The regular verb to love, has its object ei- 
their expressed or implied. It is thus conjuga- 
ted: 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I love, 1st person, We love, 

2d thou lovesf, 2d ye or you love, 

3d he, she or it loves. 3d they love. 

Past Tense. 

Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I loved, 1st person, We loved, 

2d thou lovedsJ, 2d ye or you loved., 

3d he, she or it loved. 3d they loved. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Future Tense. 

To Love. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present or active, Past or descriptive, 

Loving. Loved. 



§6 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

The irregular verb to have is thus conjugated: 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I have, 1st person, We have, 

2d thou has*, 2d ye or you have, 

3d he, she or it has. 3d they have. 

Past Tense. 

Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I had, 1st person, We had, 

2d thou hadsf, 2d ye or you had, 

^d he, she or it had. 3d they had. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Future Tense. 

To Have. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present or active. Past or descriptive* 

Hawing. had. 



The conjugation of the irregular verb to be. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Sing* Plu. 

1st person, I am, 1st person, We are, 

2d thou art, 2d ye or you are. 

3d he, she or it is. 3d they are; 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 97 

Past Tense. 
Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I was, 1st person, We were, 

2d thou wast, 2d ye or you were, 

3d he, she or it was. 3d they were. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Future Tense. 

To Be. 



PARTICIPLES. 

'■ Present or active, Past or descriptive , 

Being. Been. 

The indicative and infinitive moods together 
make a future tense. 

I have to be, I am to have. — (af) 

I (af ) The verbs be and were were used by good idiomatic writers 
| in all the. persons and numbers of the present tense of the indicative 
. mood. But grammarians, instead of following this idiom, have foisted 
, on these verbs their inconsistent, bewildering and contradictory sub- 
junctive mood. They are thus used: 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

% Present Tense. 
Sing. Plu. 

person, I be, 1st person, We be, 

2d thou be, or beest* 2d ye or you be, 

j 3d he, she or it be, bees or bis.* 3d they be. - 

Were. 
Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I were, 1st person, We were, 

2d thou wert, 2d ye or you were, 

3d he, she or it were. 3d they were. 

But these verbs are not often used, in this way, at present. Mr. M's. 



* These variations of be are found in old authors, but the verb is not 
j now varied. 

01 



98 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Conjugation of the verb to will^ 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. P lu - 

1st person, I will, 1st person, We will, 

2d thou wilt, 2d ye or you will, 

3d he, she or it will, 3d they will. 



Past Tense. 
Sing. 



Plu. 



1st person, I would, 1st person, We would, 

2d thou wouldest, 2d ye or you would. 

3d he would. 3d they would. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Future Tense. 

To Will. 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present or active, Past or descriptive. 

Willing. Wanting. 

past or imperfect tense of his subjunctive mood, is not good grammar. 
"If I were, if thou wert, if he were," is incorrect, because the last, or 
the expressed verb, in what is called the subjunctive mood, is in the 
infinitive, (see note z,) and were is not the form of the infinitive; the 
infinitive is formed, by adding to to the simple verb, which is be. The 
present tense of the subjunctive, in Mr. M's. par. is good English. 
The sentence, "If I were to go," cannot be justified by any thing found 
in the language; but the use of were in the indicative singular, as dis- 
played in the above par. And as the preservation of this use of the 
verb, tends to confusion and irregularity, it ought to be discarded. 

tWhen the verb will is used to express some inherent disposition* 
aptitude or tendency, it is conjugated as above, but when it expresses 
some specified voluntary action of the mind, it is regular, and conjuga- 
ted accordingly. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 99 

Conjugation of the verb shall. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I shall, 1st person, We shall, 

2d thou shalt, 2d ye or you shall, 

3d he, she or it shall. 3d they shall. 

Past Tense. 

Si?ig. Plu. 

1st person, I should, 1st person, We should, 

2d thou shouldest, 2d ye or you should 

3d he, she or it should. 3d they should. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Future Tense. 
Wanting, 

PARTICIPLES. 

Wanting. 



Conjugation of the verb can. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 
Sing. plu. 

1st person, I can, 1st person, We can, 

2d thou canst, 2d ye or you can. 

3d he, she or it can. 3d they can. 

Past Tense. 
Sing. Plu. 

1st person, I could, 1st person, We could, 

2d thou couldest, 2d ye or you could, 

3d he, she or it could. 3d they could. 



100 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 
INFINITIVE MOOD* 

Present Tense* 

To Can* 



PARTICIPLES* 

Wanting*. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



There are about two hundred* irregular 
verbs, and they may be divided into five clas^ 

ses. 

I. Such as are not varied for tense; as, 



Indicativi 


2 Mood. 


Infinitive. 


Past 


Tense — present* past* 


future* 


participle* 


Beat, 


beat, 


to beat, 


beat. 


Bid, 


; i bid, 


to bid, 


bid. 


Burst, 


burst. 


to burst, 


burst. 


Cast, 


cast, 


to cast, 


cast. 


Cost,. 


cost, 


to cost, 


cost. 


Cut, 


cut, 


to cut, 


cut. 


Eat, # 


ate, 


to eat, 


eat or eaten* 


Hit, 


kit,. 


to hit, 


hit. 


Hurt r 


hurt, 


to Hurt, 


hurt. 


Knit, 


knit, 


to knit, 


knit. 


Let;, 


let, 


to let, 


let. 


Put, 


put, 


to put, 


put. 


Rid, 


rid, 


to rid, 


rid. 


Set r 


set, 


to set, 


set. 


Shed, 


shed, 


to shed, 


shed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


to shred, 


shred. 


Shut, 


shut, 


to shut, 


shut. 


Slit, 


slit, 


to slit, 


slit. 


Spit,, 


spit 


to spit, 


spit* 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAIU 



101 



Tense — present, past. 



Split, 

Spread, 

Thrust, 



split, 

spread, 

thrust, 



future. 

to split, 
to spread, 
to thrust, 



participle. 

split. 

spread. 

thrust. 



2. Such as, in the past tense and past par- 
ticiple, change d to t; as; 

Bend, bent or bended, to bend, bent. 

Lend, lent, to lend, lent. 

Rend, rent, to rend, rent. 

Send, sent, to send, sent. 

Spend, spent, to spend, spent. 

Wend, went, to wend, went. 

3. Such as change the final ed into £, short- 
en the preceding vowel, or otherwise modify 
the past tense; as, 



Abide, 

Beseech, 

Bind, 

Bid, 

Bite, 

Bleed, 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Build, 

Buy, 

Come, 

Cling, 

Creep, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Get, 

Grind, 

Hold, 

Have, 

Keep, 



abode, 

besought, 

bound, 

bid, bade 5 

bit, 

bled, 

bred, 

brought, 

built, 

bought, 

came, 

clung, 

crept, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

got, 

ground, 

held, 

had, 

kept, 



10* 



to abide, 
to beseech, 
to bind, 
to bid, 
to bite, 
to bleed, 
to breed > 
to bring, 
to build, 
to buy, 
to come, 
to cling, 
to creep, 
to feed, 
to feel, 
to fight, 
to find, 
to flee, 
to fling, 
to get, 
to grind, 
to hold, 
to have, 
to keep, 



abode. 

besought. 

bound. 

bid, bidden. 

bit. 

bled. 

bred. 

brought. 

built, 
bought, 
come, 
clung, 
crept, 
fed. 
felt, 
fought, 
found, 
fled, 
flung, 
got or gotten, 
ground, 
held, 
had. 
kept. 



f02 



« PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



Tense — present, past. 



Lay, 

Leave, 

Lose, 

Lead, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Pay, 

Read, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Run, 

Sleep, 

Seek, 

Sting, 

String, 

Swing, 

Sing, 

Spring, 

Swim, 

Stink, 

Sink, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Stick, 

Strike, 

Speed, 

Spin, 

Sit, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Sell, 

Stand, 

Say, 

Slide, 

Tell, 

Teach, 

Think, 

Wring, 

Wind, 

Win, 

Weep, 



rang. 



laid, 

left, 

lost, 

led, 

made, 

met, 

paid, 

read, 

rode, 

rung 

ran, 

slept, 

sought, 

stung , 

strung, 

swung, 

sung, sang, 

sprung, sprang 

swam, 

stunk, 

sunk, 

slung, 

slunk, 

stuck, 

struck, 

sped, 

spun, 

sat, 

shod, 

shot, 

sold, 

stood, 

said, 

slid, 

told, 

taught, 

thought, 

wrung, 

wound, 

won, 

wept, 



future. 

to lay, 
to leave, 
to lose, 
to lead, 
to make, 
to meet, 
to pay, 
to read, 
to ride, 
to ring, 
to run, 
to sleep, 
to seek, 
w "to sting, 
to string, 
to swing, 
to sing, 
to spring, 
to swim, 
to stink, 
to sink, 
to sling, 
to slink, 
to stick, 
to strike, 
to speed, 
to spin, 
to sit, 
to shoe, 
to shoot, 
to sell, 
to stand, 
to say, 
to slide, 
to tell, 
to teach, 
to think, 
to wring, 
to wind, 
to win, 
to weep, 



participle* 

laid. 

left. 

lost. 

led. 

made* 

met. 

paid. 

read. 

rode, 

rung* 

run. 

slept. 

sought. 

stung. 

strung* 

swung. 

sung. 

sprung. 

swum. 

stunk. 

sunk. 

slung, 

slunk, 

stuck. 

struck. 

sped. 

spun. 

sat. 

shod. 

shot. 

sold. 

stood. 

said* 

slid. 

told, 

taught. 

thought, 

wrung. 

wound 

won. 

wept. 






PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



ioe 



4. Such as take three different forms from 
one root; as, 



znse — present, past. 
Arise, arose, 


future. 
to arise, 


participle* 
arisen. 


Bear, 


bore, 


to bear, 


borne. 


blow, 


blew, 


to blow, 


blown. 


Begin, 
Break, 


began, 
broke, 


to begin, 
to break, 


begun, 
broken. 


Choose, 


chose, 


to choose, 


chosen. 


Do, 


did, 


to do, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


to draw, 


drawn. 


Drive, 


drove, 


to drive, 


driven. 


Fall, 


fell, 


to fall, 


fallen. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


to freeze, 


frozen. 


Forget, 
Fly, 


forgot, 
flew, 


to forget, 
to fly, 


forgotten, 
flown. 


Grow, 


grew, 


to grow, 


grown. 


Give, 
Hide, 


gave, 
hid, 


to give, 
to hide, 


given, 
hidden. 


Know, 


knew, 


to know, 


known. 


Lie, 


lay, 


to lie, 


lain. 


Rise, 


rose, 


to rise, 


risen. 


Swear, 


swore, 


to swear, 


sworn. 


See, 


saw, 


to see, 


seen. 


Speak, 
Steal, 


spoke, 
stole, 


to speak, 
to steal, 


spoken, 
stolen. 


Strive, 


strove, 


to strive, 


striven. 


Smite, 


smote, 


to smite, 


smitten. 


Shake, 


shook, 


to shake, 


shaken. 


Slay, 
Tear, 


slew, 
tore, 


to slay, 
to tear, 


slain, 
torn. 


Throw, 


threw, 


to throw, 


thrown. 


Take, 


took, 


to take, 


taken. 


Tread, 


trod, 


to tread, 


trodden. 


Wear, 


wore, 


to wear, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


to weave, 


woven. 


Write, 


wrote, 


to write. 


written. 



Several of these verbs have additional forms 
of the past tense, or participle, still partially 
retained, but gradually going out of use, or ac- 
quiring a specific application. 



104 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



5. Such as are made up of different radicals, 
which have been united for the sake of reliev- 
ing the monotony of frequent use; as, 

Tense—present, past. future. \ participle. 

Am, was. to be, been. 

Go, went, to go, gone. — (ag) 

The following were formerly irregular, and 
are still occasionally so used; but there is a 
prevailing tendency to give them regular end- 
ings, and this may be considered the best prac- 
tice. 



Awake, 


awoke, 


to awake, 


awaked. 


Bereave, 


bereft, 


to bereave, 


bereft. 


Catch, 
Chide, 


caught, 
chid, 


to catch, 
to chide, 


caught, 
chiddren. 


Cleave, 


clove, 


to cleave, 


cloven or cleft. 


Clothe, 


clad, 


to clothe, 


clad, 


Crow, 


crow, 


to crow, 


crown. 


Dare. # 


durst, 


to dare, 


dared. 


Dig, 
Drink, 


dug, 
drank, 


to dig, 
to drink, 


dug. 
drunk. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, 


to dwell, 


dwelt. 


Grave, 
Hang, 
Hew, 


graved, 

hung, 

hewed, 


to grave, 
to hang, 
to hew, 


graven. 

hung. 

hewn. 


Lade, 


laded, 


to lade, 


laden, 


Mow, 


mowed, 


to mow, 


mown. 


Rive, 


rived, 


to rive, 


riven. 


Show, 


showed, 


to show, 


shown. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


to saw, 


sawn. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


to shape, 


shapen. 



(ag) Went is the past tense of wend, now obsolete, but of peculiar 
signification. It was used to describe the moving- of cattle in crossing 
a plain: 

,4 The cattle wend alouch the moor." 

Went is now used as the past tense of go, though there is a shade of 
difference, in the meanings of wend and go. 

*To venture. 





PHILOSOPHICAL 


GRAMMAR 


105 


Tense — present* pas*,. 


future. 


participle. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


to shear, 


shorn. 


Shine, 


shone, 


to shine, 


shone. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


to spill, 


spilt, 


Swell,. 


swelled, 


to swell, 


swollen. 


Thrive, 


throve, 


to thrive, 


thriven. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


to wax, 


waxen. 


Work, 


wrought, 


to work, 


wrought. 




DEFECTIVE 


VERBS. 






TENSES. 




PARTICIPLES. 


Present. 


past. future 


pres. part, past part 



Can, 
Must, 

May, 
Ought, 

Shall, 
Will, 



could, 

must, 

might, 

ought, 

quoth 

should, 

would, 



to can. 



to will, 



willing, 



The radical verbs which taken together 
make up the verb Be. 

past. future. 



Present, 
Am, 
Are, 
Be, 
Is, 



pres. part, past part, 



were, 



Am, 

Are, ■, was, 

Be, j were, 

Is,- J 



\ } 



to be, 



to be, 



being, 



being, 



been. 



been* 



REMARKS ON TENSE. 



"Time is not confined in language to verbs, as has been 
mistakingly supposed; it belongs to all sorts of words, as it 
does to all sublunary things: the infant must before long, 
cease to be an infant, or be a child for the second time; sons 



106 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

and daughters will lose the relations that constitute them 
such; young persons may be old, and rosy cheeks pale; the 
hearts, at present agitated, will become quiet; and you and 1, 
who now speak and hear, will soon be they and them, of 
whom a few successors in the scene may, perhaps, sometimes 
converse. 

"Time in its general application to changing things, is to 
be learned and considered, not as a principle of speech, but 
as a law of nature, to which words are to be appropriately- 
applied from previous knowledge of facts; but tense is here 
to be examined as one of the modifications of the verb. 

"In the systems of grammar, as taught among different na- 
tions, the number of tenses is varied, commonly from six to 
fifteen. Harris ingeniously exhibits twelve tenses, Mr. Mur- 
ray has twelve, consisting of six primary ones, each divided 
into definite and indefinite. The French writers, who have 
paid great attention to this subject, generally make more. — 
Mr. Bauzee, in his very learned work has twenty tenses* — 
Dr. Beattie makes thirty-six, in his English grammar, and 
thinks that a less number would produce a defective view of 
the language, and create 'confusion in the grammatical artS 
The royal academy of Spain gives an elaborate, and method- 
ical explanation of seven future tenses in that language. 

"As the learning of tense, according to such a scheme, 
must be a greater undertaking than the building of a house, it 
becomes a matter of serious importance to begin by counting 
the cost, and estimating what the acquisition will probably 
be worth when it is gained." — Wm. S. CardelL 

The School theory of tense proceeds in an attempt to find 
out whether an action took place at, after, or before, the per- 
iod of one or more, other events. The principle, on this 
plan, is easily settled, and the compilers will need to be dili- 
gent in counting their tenses. They are equal to the number 
of distinguishable successions, from the beginning to the end 
of time. From this bewildering tef>W^aii±y of t-wplnp, tkir- 
^y-^i^yKii Ten thousand tenses, we may learn the impossibili- 
ty, as well as the inexpediency of all such attempts. 

The business of grammarians appears to be, to explain the 
tenses of verbs, and not "accurately to mark" all "the dis- 
tinctions of time/" "in which actions or events occur." The 
verbs in the Latin language have no more tenses than they 
have variations to express time, but our philologists 
overlooked this fact, and excellent arrangement of that Ian- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 107 

guage, in introducing its principles into ours. And as the 
English verb has but three variations, one for the present 
time, one for the past, and one for the future, I conclude, 
the verb has but three tenses. And as those divisions of 
time called tenses, are not made by the verb, but by the in- 
dependent meaning of other words connected with it, they are 
therefore, not tenses of the verb. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

■ 

The Hebrew language has no present tense. The present 
tense, in this language, is expressed by the present partici- 
ple, which represents a progressive state of actions. The 
present tense in English represents generally, a state of ac- 
tion; as, I live, and not a specific act occupying a fixed peri- 
od of present time: hence the definition of the present tense, 
"action begun and not finished." 

Mr. Murray says, "The Present Tense represents an ac- 
tion or event, as passing at the time in which it is mention- 
ed; as, I rule," &c; and so they all say, who follow in his 
wake, I object not to the definition, but I propose to try Mr. 
M. and his adherents by his definition. This is surely fair. 
Mr. M. has five moods, and each mood has a present tense. 
Ind., I write, (present tense;) Imp., write thou; Pot., pres- 
ent tense, I may write; Sub., If I write*; Infin., to write. 
Four out of Mr. M's. five present tenses, are future tenses. 
I can write, Pot. Write is not passing while I am speaking 
of write; you see 1 am not writing, and therefore write is 
not present tense, Mr. M. being judge. Write thou, Imp. 
You are not writing when I command you to write, and you 
may call in question my authority to command, and refuse 
to obey, in which case you never \^ill write, as commanded; 
or you may not be able to write, and therefore cannot com- 
ply. And in this, as in the other case, write is not passing 
at the time it is mentioned, nor will it, in this last case, ever 
pass, in any time, yet Mr. M. says this verb is present tense, 
and thousands believe him. If I write, Sub. Is write pass- 
ing "at the time in which it is mentioned?" It is so far 
from passing, that it may never pass. I am going to 
write. Is ivrite, in this sentence, "passing at the time in 
which it is mentioned?" I am going to write, but my going 
may never end in writing, and if not, write will never 
pass, and is so far from being present, it may never exist. 



108 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

What Mr. M. says about verbs, in this particular, does not 
come up to the morality of the Indian. It is said, an In- 
dian once sold a deer to a white man, and received payment. 
After which he directed him how to find it. Go, said the 
Indian, over that ridge, (pointing to a ridge,) and on the 
other side you will find a run; take up the run, and you will 
come to a black tree, on which you will find the deer. The 
white man went, but found no deer. At his return, he call- 
ed on the Indian, to make him refund the price of the deer. 
Did you not, said the Indian, find the ridge? The white 
man replied, yes. Did you not find the run? Yes. Did 
you not find the black tree? Yes, said the white man, but 
1 found no deer on it. The Indian replied, three truths in 
four are enough for Indian. Is one truth in five enough 
for Mr. Murray, or enough to teach our children, on the im- 
portant subject of language? 

PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT TENSES. 

The combination of words, called the perfect tense, is not 
a tense of the verb, but a combination of two distinct verbs, 
or of a present tense verb, and the past participle of another 
distinct verb; as, "I have loved." Have is the present tense 
of the verb to have, and loved the past participle of the 
verb to love, and therefore the perfect tense has an allusion to 
past, and present time. This is the true secret of the per- 
fect tense conveying an allusion to present time. Have, in 
this association does not denote possession, as it generally 
does; but state or situation, and may generally be exchan- 
ged for the verb be. It is often much better to use be than 
have; as, to say, "we have come into the presence of the 
court;" better, we are co§ne into the presence of the court. 
The Hebrew has no verb equivalent to have in the sense it 
is here used, so far as I can discover. The verb to be is used 
throughout for have. Instead of saying, Abraham had ser- 
vants, Jacob had riches, the Hebrew would say, servants 
were to Abraham, Jacob was rich. The Spanish and Ger- 
man languages form one of their tenses in the same way, by 
adding the past participle of the verb, to the verb have. But 
the participle has the very same signification, and use, when 
thus used, that it has when used differently, and is here a 
participle and not a verb. H^ve is the only verb in the sen- 
tence. The Pluperfect tense is the past participle added to 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 109 

the past tense of the verb have; and it is nothing else. It 
is the past tense of have, and the past participle of some 
other verb, which denotes the period of time intended to be 
signified by this tense. This signification is often, a very 
obscure, imperfect and inelegant one, and can be much be 
ter made, by the past tense of the verb, and an adverb of 
time. In Mr. M's. example, "I had finished my letter be- 
fore he arrived," it is saying no more than, I finished my let- 
ter before he arrived; and it is not saying it quite so well. 
There is often a great want of clearness in the combination 
©f have and the past participles of other verbs, as seen in 
the perfect and pluperfect tenses of the old grammars; and 
though such a combination is sometimes admissible, it is 
seldom indispensable, and often erroneous, because it des- 
troys the proper governments of the sentence, as will be 
seen in the parsing exercises. It ought to be used very spa- 
ringly. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

There is no future tense of the indicative mood in the Eng- 
lish language. A few elementary truths, properly under- 
stood, would have saved a prodigious labor of learning on this 
point. 

The indicative mood is so called, because it points out, in- 
dicates, or declares an action. But that which has no exist- 
ence, cannot be declared or pointed out; that which now ex- 
ists, which is now transpiring, may be indicated or pointed 
out; and that which has transpired, may be recalled by the 
memory, and declared also; but that which does not now ex- 
ist, nor never did exist, cannot be pointed out, nor declared. 

That action which has yet to take place, can enter into any 
possible conception of the mind, appears to depend simply 
and uniformly on the connection existing between cause and 
j effect. We see causes now existing similar to causes, which, 
1 in time past, produced certain effects, and we conclude that 
those, which now exist, will produce similar effects; hence the 
mind conceives of action yet to take plaoe; but if the causes 
should cease, as they may, before they produce the effects, 
the effects never can exist. The mind cannot conceive of 
things to come only in a possible or probable way; because 
mutability is interwoven with the constitution of every crea- 
ted thing; and that which may or may not be, cannot be of- 
firmed, indicated, declared, or pointed out. 
11 



110 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

The indicative mood expresses action, in a direct personal 
relation to the agent which produces or causes it; and as all 
agents exist in the present point of time, and the actions ex- 
pressed by the future tense, belong to a future period, they 
^cannot be directly and personally connected; their connec- 
tion is only a probable one; the agent of the present time, 
• may not live to see the future period. I cannot affirm that I 
will go to England, in the year 1843, nor, that I will go to the 
country to-morrow, because I may die the next hour. 1 can 
only express my present will or determination touching those 
things. But to affirm or declare that I will do a thing in a 
period of time, which I may not live to see, is certainly a 
very rash expression — one that does not become a mortal 
creature. 

The future tense can only express action growing out of 
some existing condition of things; as, I kindled the fire to 
warm the room; I did one action that another might grow 
out of it. I do not warm the room, I only kindled the fire, 
and the action of warming the room, grows out of the condi- 
tion of the kindled fire; hence we, see that verbs in the future 
tense have no direct personal agent, and we also see, that 
they must all be in the infinitive mood, because the infinitive 
mood has no direct personal relation to an agent. 

Mr. Murray's first future tense is nothing but one verb in 
the indicative mood, and another following it in the infinitive. 
"J will write" Will is in the Ind. mood present tense, and 
write, in the In. mood, and future tense. It is the infinitive 
verb tvrite that denotes futurity, and not will. Will ex- 
presses my present intention, not my future action. "I in-* 
tend to write," is an equivalent expression. Here write is 
in the In. mood, with the prefix to, and intend, which ex- 
presses the same idea that will does, is in Ind. mood present 
tense. Shall and will according to Mr. M. require the verb 
following them to drop the prefix to, in the infinitive mood. 
And this they do in his first future tense. 

Mr. M's second future tense is a combination of words, 
every way inadmissible. "I shall have dined at one 
o'clock." Here are two verbs shall and have and a past par- 
ticiple, dined. Such a combination defies analyzal ion. Shall 
means obligation, have, possession and dined, the finished 
act of eating dinner; and is added to the noun dinner to show 
what was, or will be done to it, at, or before some given time. 
If these words are understood, with any reference to their 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. Ill 

specific meaning, the passage mast be rendered thus: I am un- 
der obligation to possess my dinner, in the state, the act of eat- 
ing will place it, before one o'clock. How much better to say, I 
will eat my dinner before one o'clock. "The two houses (of 
Parliament) will have finished their business, when the king 
comes to prorogue them, better thus: The two houses will 
finish their busiuess before the king come to prorogue them. 
Comes in this sentence is not correct, when the king (shall) 
come. Come is in the infinitive mood, without the sign to> be- 
cause it follows the verb shall understood, and therefore ought 
not to be inflected to agree with king, as its agent: come de- 
notes future time, has no personal agent. 

The moods and tenses given to the English verb, by gram- 
marians, to make the language as copious, in these respects, 
as the learned languages, to do which they had to resort to 
the combination seen in their paradigms, and to call some of the 
verbs, in these combinations auxiliaries, is uncalled for. And 
though the English language has not so many variations for 
mood and tense, as the learned languages have, it is not less 
copious and specific oh this account. By two verbs, one in 
the Ind., and the other in the In. mood, we can express the 
very same variation of verbal signification, that is expressed 
by the modal forms of the Greek and Latin verb; and many 
other variations that their modal forms do not express. — 
And by combining participles and adverbs with the past tense 
of the English verb, I can designate with the utmost exactness 
any conceivable period of time, from the creation, to the pres- 
ent now; and by the same combination with the future tense, 
any conceivable period, from the present now, to the event- 
ful moment, when the mighty angel shall swear that tirne 
shall be no longer. 

The English language is second to none, if it is not supe- 
rior to all, in the variations of the signification of its verbs, 
and the distinctions of the time in which those significa- 
tions are signified. And though it requires more words than 
many others, it is not the less perfect, or elegant on this ac- 
count: these words give it more variety and precision of 
meaning, as well as more copiousness; and all this is done 
without being cast in the mould of any other. The English 
language is a noble structure, simple and natural, full and 
clear, less declinable than almost any other, and consequent- 
ly easier learned, yet more varied in its significations. 

While reviewing the simple grandeur, and unrivaled ex- 



112 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

cellence of my mother tongue, I feel like transferring to if, 
the exclamation of the patriot, "My country right or wrong,"* 
My language right or wrong. And 1 rejoice that God him- 
self, is about to make this language the praise of the whole 
earth. It is the lever which is lifting the darkness from the 
habitations' of cruelty; the medium through which the Mis- 
sionary and Bible Societies, are pouring their mighty tor- 
rents of living waters, on the dry places of our earth. 

Q. 91. Has every verb an object upon which its action 
terminates? 

A. Yes; but the object is often not express- 
ed, being unavoidably understood. 

Q. 92. Cannot a verb be used without an object, express- 
ed or understood? 

A. No; because every verb expresses some 
action, and no action can take place without 
some object be effected by it — when we do 
something, something must be done. 

Q. 93. How may verbal objects be classed? 

A. They may be divided into three classes; 
I. Such as have no connection with the agent 
of the verb, or the resulting effect of its action;, 
as, James loves Eliza. 2. Such as are produ- 
ced by the action of the verb; as, the builders 
bitild buildings; dreamers dream dreams. 3. 
Such as produce the action of the verb; as, the 
doctor bleeds himself; the man cuts his throat, 
{ah) 

(ah) Grammarians have mistakingly supposed, that verbs have no 
objective words when the actions expressed by them, do not pass from, 
the agent to some object, which has no connection with the resulting 
effect of the verb's action, and which is also distinct from the agent 
which produces the action. But if the doctor bleeds me and bleeds him- 
self, the verb bleed expresses as much action in the one case, as it does in 
the other, and the action has as distinct an object in the second, as it has 
in the first. Himself and me are both in the objective case governed by 
the verb bleed. The same individual may be both agent and object of 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



113 



Q. 94. When are the objective words to be expressed, 
and when are they to be omitted? 

A. When the«object of the verb is a distinct 
person, from the agent, and is not produced by 
the verb's action, it must generally be express- 
ed; as, the farmer mo^s the grass, I loved him 
for his virtue. But when the same person or 
thing is both agent and object, the objective re- 
lation may, generally, be omitted; as, the wind 
blows (the icind,) the man walked (himself) 
to town, and when the object is produced by 
the verb's action, it should be, for the most 
part, omitted; as, walkers walk (walks,) sleepers 
sleep (sleep.) But the objective words may be 
expressed without affecting- either the sense or 

the verb; in the subjective and objective case; as, when I say, the coiner 
coins coin, the action expressed, by the verb coin, places things in a 
1 new condition; the metals which were, prior to the act, simple and un- 
mixed, are placed by the action of coining inthejiew condition of mo- 
ney, and in this new condition stand related to the verb as its object, 
and must for the same reason be in the objective case. Or I may say 
the coiner coins metals into coins, the builder builds timbers into build- 
ings; these expressions plainly show the objects of the verb; something 
that exists is acted upon and put into a new condition of being. Some 
may suppose, that the words coin and buildings are governed in the ob- 
jective case by the preposition into. But prepositions do not govern 
the objective case.— (See notes on prepositions.) 

There are many sentences of pure idiomatic English, that cannot be 
parsed according to the old theory of grammr; as, "The courtier smiled 
himself into favor," and "Judas went and hanged himself." Himself, 
in these sentences, cannot be governed in the objective case by a prep- 
osition understood, for no preposition can be expressed, without des- 
troying the sense, and the verbs smile and hang are both intransitive— 
the actions do not pass from the agent to an object, and therefore can- 
not govern the objective case,— and himself in both cases cannot be in the 
objective case, because there is nothing to govern it in that case, and it 
cannot be in any other— the objective form alone prevents it. So we 
are driven to the necessity of having nouns and pronouns, without hav- 
ing any case to put them in. I propose to the advocates of neuter 
grammars, either to add to them, a neuter case, in which nouns and 
pronouns may be governed by neuter actions, or give up their neuter 
theory— w& teach language according to matter of fact and common 
sense. 

11* 



114 PHItOSOPHIOAt CRAHMAR. 

grammatical construction— the sense often re- 
quires them to be expressed. 

Q. 95. Can you give some examples of verbs, whicfe 
have the same person or thing for their agent and object"? 

A. Yes; the horse ran himself to death, the 
man hung himself, the hoy fell (himself) and 
broke his leg, the horse ran (himself) against 
a post, &c. (at) S 

J "Se^^tet^* 8 T 1 0b f Ctive relation t0 their °™ "* 

rf tl,P »P,i^r n • * - 6 , a ? d got burned " The **>? as ^ ««•«* 
of the verb fell, is no injured, butas the object of fall, is burned. The 

£ ""th?/' 8h °- V 1 ^ 6 ° b eCti¥e relation * the noun ^y, to the verb 
Se adl^tL f' P e / 8 Um l erSal ? lan S ua ? e . and to existence dri.es 
■ ,„ IwS H*?^' 1 * t0 admit ' that 80me "enter verbs govern 

ern Sd hosTth,; H Utth 7 "T* ^ tia S^ h between those tilt gov 
SSh^lw ? i° ' When a noun is und en>ably the object of a 
verb called neuter, the neuter verb in that case, governs the objective 
case though neuter verbs do not affect objective words The %$* 
involved in such cases, is not explained, and the student is confuted, 

& ^T Sl0n / f ^ .f lf evident fact - I n «» learned languages 
the nouns have form to denote case, as the pronouns have in Inglish • 
The _ oblique or objective cases of nouns, often come after neuter verbs,. 
%£ o ~ ? • "I 8 ' th - 7 ad , mit th T e neuter verbs ^vern, without attempt- 
}«„£.£? . Pr '" ClP i e ' • " In transitive verbs are sometimes us P ed 
!Kh?* a "r "W? W ' th an acc ™ative case; as, hai pegia rem,. 
t& V r '• " The f°!"*ain S flow milk and hmey." «Ze Hon 
Iff on, he hvesa most pleasant life." This last case is thus defined: 
"Intransitive verbs.govern an accusative of the noun, which expresses 
the abstract of the verb." See Buttmann's Greek Gr'aZZr, S 

in the first of those examples, the principle above stated and ex- 
plained, ^distinctly recognized. "The fountains flow mitt and 

X t th ?r I fl ° Wingr °f ^ f ° UntaiM ' P roduce milk andU?J 
Or are the fountains composed of milk and honey, and flow milk and 

honey, when they flow themselves? If the latte/'be the Tct, whichTt 

undoubtedly is the objective words milk and honey, express the obiec 

tive relation of the agent, fountains, to the verb flow. The reason this 

principle is not acknowledged, or.is overlooked, is this; the objective re! 

lation of the noun to its own act, is seldom expressed. The general 

design of communication is toshow how some other object is affected by 

In/it, J ■ % and "? t0 u h0 ^ h0W the a ^ nt 's action affects himself 
and therefore, the agent's objective relation is not expressed, but always 
understood; and must be supplied in parsing many sentences, in which 
prepositions occur. It is impossible, in the nature of things thaVany 
tiling can act, without being affected by its own action. And where 
we designed to show, how the action affects its agent, the agent is 
placed in the learned languages after its own action, in one of the oblique 
oases, and ff expressed by a pronoun, in English, the pronoun is the ob- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 115 

Tutor. — Give some examples of verbs which 
produce their objective words, by their own ac- 
tions. 

Pupil.— "Thinkers think thoughts;" "Ac- 
tors act or perform actions; "Walkers walk 
walks;" "Players play plays? &c. (aj) 

Q. 96. How may a verb be known? 

A. Any verb that will make sense with J, 
thou, he, she, it, they or who before it, is a verb; 
as, I run, thou runnest, he, she or it runs, they 
run, who runs or run? 



jective case. This is the secret of neuter verbs sometimes governing the 
objective case. These verbs have objects, as much where those relations 
are not expressed, as where they are. And if this 'principle was recog- 
nized by the Greek and Latin philologists, it would save them much 
trouble, and their disciples still more. In the second example, "he 
lives a most pleasant life"-.the second class of verbal objects, is die- 
tmctlv recognized. Life is the resulting effect of the action of the verb 
to Itve. This principle is founded in nature, and is of very general 

When I say all verbs have objects, I do not mean all verbs have ob= 
jects of the first class of verbal objects, such as are distinct from the 
agents of tne verbs, or the resulting effects of the verb's actions; all 
verbs have not this kind of object. This is the kind of objects, recogni- 
sed m the old grammars, and they are correct in saying, all verbs have 
not pbjects, in this sense. But there are other kinds of verbal objects, 
which the student must distinctly understand, to understand the prac- 
tical operations of language, and if those objects are not distinctly re- 
cognized, and explicitly defined or explained, the student must remain 
T™Z nt £ f them ' an T d .of someof the most important principles of 
Tit', i T^. c whlc } <»?not be understood without admitting the 
umversa activity of verbs. I shall say more on this subject, when I 
I ©ome to treat of the supposed government of prepositions. 

! *K^i That i here 77 is S -n° h a 1 noun as ^«^ is clearly proven by the fact, 
I that the word walk will make sense with an adnoun {adjective or artt 

' inZ ? £u U *? a Wa t k ' a g09d walJc > a lon S «wtt, a short walk, &c. 

*er^lf* »k 1S 8 i a Tu 1 U mUSt be formed *y the act *™ of the 
verb watt— the only way to have a walk is to walk U. 



116 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Noun, is— a noun, and why? pro- 
per, common, or collective, and why? person, and why? num- 
ber, and why? if plural, how formed? gender, and why? 
agent or object, and why? 

The order of parsing a Pronoun, is— a pronoun, and 
why? person, and why? number, and why? gender, and why? 
ease and why? for what noun does it stand? decline it. 

The order of parsing an Adnoun, is— an adnoun, and 
why? descriptive or definitive, and why? simple state, defin- 
ite or indefinite comparison, and why? compare it? 

The order of parsing a Verb, is— a verb, and why? 
regular, irregular or defective, and why? mood, and why? 
tense, and why? person and number, and why? conjugate it. 

(6a) Sentences may be divided into major and miuor sec- 
tions. The major sections contain the agents, verbs and ob- 
jects, where the objects are expressed; and the definitive ad- 
nouns, and the possessive case pronouns belonging to the 
nouns. The minor sections contain the descriptions of the 
agents, verbs and objects; and may be divided into three di- 
visions: 1st. The descriptions of agents. 2. The descrip- 
tions of verbs or attributes. 3d. The descriptions of objects. 
The participle is sometimes an attribute. The minor 
sections contain the descriptive adnouns, adnominal phrases, 
adverbs, adverbal phrases, and prepositions with their follow- 
ing objective words. The conductions, where they con- 
nect distinct sentences, belong to neither section. The con- 
junction and sometimes connects words, then it belongs to 
the major sections. 

In the parsing exercises the major sections are enclosed in 
brackets, and the minor in parentheses. This is done to en- 
able the student to distinguish the simple affirmation of the 
sentences, from its descriptive appendages. The young stu- 
dent will find this of very great advantage to him. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 



117 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



Subjects. 


verbs. 


adnouns. 


objects. 


[Julius 


prints 


(children's) 


primers.](7a) 


[Harriet 


makes 


(ladies') 


bonnets.] 


[The boy 


beats 


the (man's) 


horse.] 


[The horse 


kicked 


the (boy's) 


father.] 


[The boy 


struck 


that (man's) 


child.] 


[The tempest 


sunk 


those (merchants') 


vessels.} 


[The gale 


swept 


the (mountain's) 


brow.] 


[Pope, the poet 


translated 


(Homer's) 


Iliad.] 


[Cicero 


procured 


(Milo's) 


release.] 


[Alexander 


conquered 


(Darius') 


army.] 


[Perry 


met 


the (enemy's) 


fleet.] 


[Washington 


obtained 


his (country's) 


freedom.] 


Agent. 


verb. 


jyro.-poss. case. 


object. 


[James 


injured 


his 


hat.] 


[Thomas 


loves 


his 


father.] 


[Jane 


soiled 


her 


book.] 


[William 


whipped 


his 


dogs.] 


[Girls 


love 


their 


dolls.] 


[Children 


love 


their 


plays.] . 


[The miser 


loves 


his 


gold.] 


[Farmers 


plough 


their 


fields.] 


[The Christian loves 


his 


God.] (8a) 


[The father 


chastens 


his 


son.] 


[The mother 


loves 


her 


child.] 



(7a) "Julius prints children's primers." Julius is a noun, 
and the agent of prints; (see prins. 3 and 22.) Prints is a 
verb, and has Julius for its agent; (seeprin. 68.) Children's 
is a noun, which becomes an adnoun, is added to primers to de- 
scribe them, and has an apostrophe and s added to it, because 
it describes the noun primers by showing its relation to 
^children; (see prins. 20 and 21.) Primers is a noun, and the 
object of prints; (see prins. 3 and 22.) 

(8a) "The Christian loves his God." The is an adnoun, 
land belongs to Christian; (see prins. 43 and 46.) Christian 
is a noun, and the agent of loves; (see prin. 22.) Loves is a 
rerb, and has Christian for its agent; (see prin. 68.) His'xs 



118 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

[Julia injured her book,] [and soiled mine;] [hers is bet* 
ter than mine.] [My friend sacrificed his fortune] (to secure 
yours;) [his deeds deserve reward,] [yours merit disgrace.] 
(Henry's) [labor's are] (to come;) [thine are] (past.) [The 
fire is] (kindled to warm the room.) [Men labor] (to get 
riches.) [The pious strive] (to please God.) [The wicked 
labor] (to please themselves.) [Religion will comfort] (those 
who obey its precepts.) [Truth and simplicity are (twin) 
sisters,] and [ought to go] (hand in hand.) (9a) 



PARTICIPLES, 
Q. 97. What is a participle? 

A. A participle is a word which is derived 
from a verb, and partakes of the nature of a 
verb, and also of an adnoun. 

Q. 98. How many participles does a verb form? 

A. Two; the present, ending in ing; as, 
loving, and the past, or descriptive, in e, d, t or 
en; as, do, done, love, loved, bite, bit, steal, 
stolen. The participles of regular verbs end in 
d or ed, and correspond with the past tense. 

Q. 99. What does the present participle denote? 

A. The present participle denotes action be- 
gun, but not finished; as, the horse is running 
a race. 

a pronoun; it stands for the noun Christian, and possesses 
God; (see prins. 24 and 30.) God is a noun and the object 
of the verb loves; (see prins. 3 and 22.) 

(9a) ["Men labor] (to get riches.") Men is a noun, and 
labor is a verb, (seee. g. 7a) and the major section of the sen- 
tence, (see note 6a.) To get is a verb in the infinitive mood, 
(see prin. 74 and note x. Riches is a noun and the object of 
to get, (see prins. 3 and 22.) To get riches is the minor 
section, and belong to the verb labor. It shows the reasoa 
why the labor is performed. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 119 

Q. 100. What does the past, or descriptive participle de- 
note? r r 

A, The past participle denotes finished ac- 
tion; as, the house is painted. 

Q. 101. In what respect do participles partake of the na- 
ture of verbs? 

A. Participles like verbs express action, and 
point out time; as, loving, (pres. time,) loved, 
(past.) 

Q. 102. In what respect do participles partake of the na- 
ture of ad nouns? 

A. Participles, like adnouns, belong to the 
nouns which they describe; as, a running 
horse, a painted wall. (16) 

Q. 103. Do participles describe the nouns which per- 
form the actions expressed by them? 

A. The present participle, describes the 
noun which is the agent of its action, and the 
past or descriptive, the noun which is the ob- 
ject; as, the man is walking; he is in the con- 
dition that his action has placed him. The man 
is killed; he is in the condition that the act of 
some other agent has placed him. 

Q. 104. In what respect do the present participles differ 
"from verbs, seeing they belong to the noun which performs 
the action expressed by them? 

A. Though the present participles belong to 
the nouns which are the agents of their actions, 
they are not varied to agree with the agents 
in number and person; they describe the con- 
dition of the noun, as well as express its action. 

(lb) Adnouns- describe nouns, by showing some quality 
or property possessed by them. Participles describe nouns, 
by showing the new state, or condition, in which the actions 
expressed by participles, place them. 



120 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 105. Do ever participles govern pronouns in case? 

A. The present participles have the same 
government, which the verbs have, from which 
they are derived; but the past participle never 
governs an objective word. 

Q. 106. Do ever participles become mere adnbuns? 

A. Yes; participles become adnouns, where 
they are used to show what the nouns, to which 
they are added, are, and not what they are do- 
ing, or what is or was done to them; as, the 
roaring winds, distinguished poets. Roar- 
ing and distinguished show what the wind and 
poets are, and not what ihey are doing, or what 
was done to them; and those adnouns may be- 
come nouns; as, "a good beginning may make 
a good ending*" 

Q. 107. Are all words which ending participles? 

A. No; those are only participles which are 
derived from verbs. 



The order of parsing a participle is — a participle, and 
why? from what verb is it derived? present or past, and 
why? what noun does it describe? 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

[Orlando left the herd] (grazing.) [The hunters heard 
the (young) dog] (barking.) [The fox heard the (sportsman's) 
horn] (sounding.) (Purling) [streams moisten the (earth's) 
surface.] [The (approaching) sun melts the snow.] [The 
(slumbering) seas calmed the (grave old Hermit's) mind.] 
[Man beholds the (twinkling) stars] (adorning night's blue 
arch.) [The stranger saw the (desert) thistle] (bending 
there its lonely head.) [The house is] (painted.) [The 
men are] (hated.) [The fire is] (burning the wood.) [Ma- 
ny (small) streams (uniting) form (large) rivers.] (26) 

(26) "Orlando left the herd grazing" Orlando is a noun. 



PRUOSOPHICAl GRAMMAR. 121 

ERRORS IN GRAMMAR. 

John and James is good boys, but them might be belter. 
Maria learn faster than Jane, because her is more attentive 
James has went to Baltimore. Great pains was taken to re- 
concile the parties. Thou cannot heal him, but thou mav 
da something to relieve him. The wall is a painting wall! 
The house is building. The girls are read. The rains is 
fallen. James and John and Thomas are labored to gain 
time for useful purposes. (3b) *» 

and the agent of the verb left. Left is a verb and has Or- 
lando for .ts agent, and herd for its object. Grazing is a 
participle, and is added to its agent herd to show whf t the 
herd was doing, when Orlando left it. (See prin. 103.) 

'Purling streams," &c. Purling is a present participle 
and becomes an adnoun because it is added to Se noun 
streams to describe it. (See prin. 106.) 

"Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning," & c . TwinJr. 
hng is a participle from the verb to twinkle? which becomes 
an adnoun, because it is added to the noun stars to describe 
it. Adorning ,s a participle from the verb to adorn, and is 
here used as a pure participle, is added to its agent starT no 
to describe ,t, as twinkling does, but to show what it is doin°. 

(36) Is, in the first sentence, is in the singular number 
and has two agents, John and James, is ought to be arc T-- 
Ihem, in the same sentence, is in the wrong case, it is the 
agent of the verb might, and should be in thf sub. ca e (see 
par. of pronouns p. 49.) Can and mat/, in the sentence com- 
mencing, «Thou cannot," are in the wrong person- (see Z 

^S ^ f J erbs -") ^^inthesenfeJcecomSLn" 
The wall, ,s used not to show what the wall is doino- bu 
what some other agent did to the wall, and therefore' the 
pas participle painted should be used. Building in he 
sentence commencing, "The house," is incorrect, the preset 
participle always shows what the agent of its action is £ 
j was do,„g, but the house is not performing the action of 

SSft if , therefor t' the p*^ 16 is --PpS It 

, should be the house is build, or built in part; or if we wish 
; to show that the building of the house is pressing we 

i Xiy T.r buUdin§ a h ° USe ' and attr ' bute Action 
ofbuildmg to the true agent ot agents. 

12 b 



122 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY. 

I. Nouns. 

Write the plural of the following nouns; town, country, 
case, pin, needle, harp, pen, sex, rush, arch, marsh, mon- 
arch, blemish, glass, tear, wo, grotto, ally, duty, toy, money, 
half, safe, calf, strife, roof, mouse, ox, foot, son in-law, man- 
servant. 

II. Pronouns. 

1. Write the subjective case plural of the following pro- 
nouns; I, thou, he, she, it, who. 

2. Write the following words in the customary form; 
her's, it's, our's, your's, their's, who's, meself, hisself, their- 
selves. 

3. Write the objective singular of all the pronouns. 

4. Write the objective plural of the pronouns. 

III. Adnouns. 

Annex suitable nouns to each of the following adnouns; 
good, great, tall, wise, strong, dark, dangerous, dismal, drow- 
sy, pale, ripe, stony, rainy; heavy. 

Prefix suitable adnonns to each of the following nouns; 
man, son, merchant, work, fence, fear, poverty, picture, delay. 

IV. Verbs. 

1. Write the following verbs in all their varied forms; go> 
eat, love, hate, run, fall, lament, acknowledge. 

2. Write the following past tenses in their proper forms; 
jumpt, prest, tapt, whipt, propt, fixt, past,*slept, distrest. 

3. Write the following verbs in the indicative mood, sec- 
ond person singular; move, strive, please, reach, confess, fix, 
survey, know, go. 

4. Write the following verbs in the third person singular; 
leave, see, search, impeach, fear. 

V. Participles. 

1. Write the past participles of the following verbs; belong, 
degrade, impress, fly, do, survey, vie, let, lie, put, effect, de- 
fer, remember, turn, burn, lend, write, delay, imply. 






PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 123 

ADVERBS OR CONTRACTIONS. 
Q. 108. What are adverbs? 

A- Adverbs are contractions of words or 
sentences, added to verbs or participles, to 
to modify their meaning; as, she writes cor- 
rectly; he is running swiftly. They are eith- 
er principal or helping; as, she writes very cor- 
rectly; he is running very swiftly, (ak) 

Q. 109. What is the difference between a principal and 
a helping adverb? 

A. A principal adverb modifies the meaning 
of the verb directly; a helping adverb modifies 
the meaning of the verb, by uniting its significa- 
tion with the signification of the principal ad- 
verb. 

(ak) Contraction, though not a primary principle of speech, is, nev- 
ertheless, an expedient resorted to, in all improved languages, to ena- 
ble expression to keep up with thought; and the more highly a lan- 
guage becomes improved, the more contractions it will contain. Con- 
tractions may be called the wings of language, by which it hastens 
the progress of communication. They enable us to say in one word 
what would otherwise take many. 

All adverbs can be resolved into phrases, or sentences, which proves, 
that they are contractions of those phrases or sentences. The phrases 
of which adverbs, for the most part are contractions, contain either a 
noun or a verb. Some adverbs are verbal in their significations, but 
those are few. Most adverbs are nounal in their meaning. 

The adverbs here, there, where, how, when r &c, are contractions* 
composed of nouns, ad nouns and prepositions; as, here, in this place; 
there, in that place; where, in what place; how, in what manner or way; 
and when, at what time. The words called adverbs differ in nothing, but 
their use, from the words called adnouns; they are the very same in 
nature, and peculiarities. They are both descriptive words and have 
comparisons, formed in the same way. The adnouns describe things; 
the adverbs the actions of things. 

Many phrases are used, to modify the meaning of verbs and parti- 
ciples; these differ not from the words denominated adverbs. I doubt 
not, many of those phrases will yet be contracted into single w T ords, 
having the very same significations, those phrases now have. Many 
phrases describe nouns, in the same way, and are in their use mere ad- 
nouns. Here is another analogy, between adnouns and adverbs. Ev- 
ery adverb is either a noun or a verb, connected with some other word 
or words. The adverb has nothing to entitle it to a distinct part of 
speech, but its use and manner of meaning. 



124 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 110. Are not adverbs often added to nouns or ad- 
nouns? 

A, Contractions may be added, to both 
nouns and adnouns, but when they are thus 
used, they are not adverbs, but adnouns. — 
These words are not classed because of their 
nature, but of their use. The same word may 
be either an adnoun or an adverb-^-if added to 
a verb, it is an adverb, if added to an adnoun 
or noun, it is an adnoun. 

Q. 111. Are not contractions when they are added to 
participles, adparticiples and not adverbs? 

A. No; participles are compound words, 
and have an adnominal and a verbal meaning; 
the adverb does not modify the compound 
meaning of the participle, but its verbal signifi- 
cation, and is therefore, still entitled to the 
name of adverb. It is added to the verb con- 
tained in the participle, and not to the partici- 
ple in its compound signification. 

Q,. 112. In how many ways do adverbs modify the mean- 
ing of verbs? 

A. Eight; 1st and 2d. They affirm or deny 
what is inquired of by the verb; as, did he go? 
yes, no. 3d. They give the verb an uncertain 
signification; as, perhaps he went. 4th. They 
define the time of action; as, he writes now. 
5th. They designate the place of action; as; he 
fell here. 6th. They show the manner of ac- 
tion; as, he acted wisely. 7th. They show the 
frequency of action; as, he went twice. 8th» 
They show the order of action; as, he came 
first, but went away last: (46.) 

(4&) The following are the principal adverbs: 
1. Of affirmation. Aye, yea, yes, certainly, truly, un- 
doubtedly, verily, &c. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAE. 125 

Q. 113. Are adverbs ever varied? 

A. Some adverbs are varied to express com- 
parison; as, soon, sooner, soonest. 

Q. 114. How many comparisons have ad.verb3? 

A. Two; definite and indefinite. 

Q. 115. What does each express, and how are they 
formed? 

A. The definite expresses comparison be- 
tween two actions or collections of actions, and 
is formed by adding er, more or less to the sim- 
ple state; as, soon, sooner, &c. The indefin- 
ite expresses comparison between more than 
two actions, or collections of actions and is form- 
ed by adding est, most or least to the simple 
state; as, soon, soonest, &c. Some adverbs 

2. Of negation. No, not, nay, the phrases, by no means, 
not at all, in no wise, &c, are negative phrases and may be 
classed with adverbs. 

3. Of possibility. Perhaps, perchance, peradventure, 
possibly, &c. 

4. Of time. Now, to-day, when, then, heretofore, alrea- 
dy, hitherto, lastly, finally, to-morrow, yesterday, soon, nev- 
er, &c. 

5. Of place. Here, there, where, elsewhere, any where, 
upward, downward, whence, thence, dec. 

6. Of manner. Wisely, foolishly, so, thus, asunder, to- 
gether, generally, will, ill, even, how. 

7. Of number. Once, twice, thrice, often, frequently, oft, 
oft-times, &c. 

8. Of order. First, secondly, thirdly, finally, lastly, &c. 

9. Of interrogation. How, why, wherefore, whether, 
&c, and sometimes when, whence, where. These adverbs, 
do not modify the meaning of the verbs, but simply inquire 
for the affirmations expressed by them. And there are 
many other adverbs which are used to express comparison, 
which belong to verbs and modify their meaning, by com- 
paring them with others of similar meanings. 

12* 



125 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 

form their comparisons by changing the word 

of the simple state; as, well, better, best. 

Q. 116. How may an adverbal phrase be generally 
known? 

A. By answering to the questions how, 
where or when. Adverbs or phrases which an- 
swer to how are adverbs of manner; those 
which answer to where are adverbs of place; 
those which answer to when are adverbs of 
time, (al) 

(al) 1. Aye, yea, yes, are from the Anglo Saxon verb Agan, which 
means to own, to take t and means take, have, possess, enjoy, and i& 
used as a verb in the infinitive mood, which contain the will of a first 
person addressed to the agency of a second, or the imperative mood in 
other languages. Those adverbs of affirmation wl)ich end in y; as, tru- 
ly, &c, means the thing affirmed is like truth or like the noun which 
becomes an adverb by the addition of ly. Ly is a contraction of like 
from to liken 

% No, not, nay, are from the northern languages and not from the 
southern, as some contend. We find in the Danish no-dig, in the Swe- 
dish no-dig, and in the Dutch noode, node, all meaning no, averse, un- 
willing; and we cannot suppose, these nations or their ancestors the 
Goths, had no means of refusing assent until they became acquainted 
with the Greeks and Romans. The phrases "by no means," &c, re- 
quire no explanation. The nouns, adnouns and prepositions connected 
with no, have distinct meanings, and in those phrases retain a degree of 
their primary significations. 

3. Perhaps, perchance, and all the adverbs beginning with per are 
nouns added to the Latin preposition per, which comes from the Greek 
nounporos, passage, course, track. The noun came from the verb pef~ 
ro, to pass. The adverbs mean that the chance, or whatever else is 
added to per, may pass. For those ending in ly see class (1.) 

4. Now, to day, &c, are mere contractions; as, now for, at this time; 
then, for, at that time; which need only to be named, to enable the stu- 
dent to resolve them into their primitive phrases, and analize the words 
contained in them. 

5. Here, there, where, &c, are also contractions of, in this place, in 
that place, in what place. Upward is a contraction, containing the pre- 
positions toward and up, (up is really a noun; see prepositions.) This 
class are easily resolved into their primitive phrases. 

6. The adverbs of manner which end in ly, are formed by some 
change in the noun preparing it to receive the affix ly, which is a con- 
traction of like from to liken; they all contain a noun and a verb. The 
affix ly is often added to the adnominal form of the noun. 

So, is called in English an adverb or conjunction, and in German an 
article or pronoun, yet it is derived from the Gothic article sa, $o (ad~ 






PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 127 

COMPARISON OP ADVERBS. 



Soon, 


sooner, 


soonest, 


Often, 


oftener, 


oftenest, 


Well, 


better, 


best, 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest, 


Wisely, 


more wisely, 


most wisely, 


Justly, 


more justly, 


most justly, 


Justly, 


less justly, 


least justly. 



noun) it or that. Thus is a contraction of, in his manner or way.— 
The other adverbs of this class need no explanation. 

7. Once, twice, thrice, anciently written anes, anis, anys, ones, onys, 
Twies, twyis, twyise, thries, thryis, &c, are merely the genitives of the 
Anglo Saxon. Ane,an, Twa,tweg,twig. Thri thry, &c, i, e'one two 
three, the noun turn (time) omitted. 

"For ones that he hath ben blithe 
He shal ben after sorie thries." 

Gower. 
Often, &,c, are mere contractions of common English words. 

8. First, second, thirdly, &c. are nothing but numeral adnouns of the 
ordinal kind. Those that have ly added are those numbers with ly af 
fixed. 

If we denominate those contractions adverbs, only when they modi- 
fy the actions expressed by verbs and participles, we can very easily 
class them; but if we try to arrange them, in all their uses, under one 
head, we shall be compelled to have nearly as many rules for this part 
of speech, as are requisite to form an entire system of grammar. Those? 
who have thus treated them, have found themselves compelled to form' 
those words into seventy classes, and then to acknowledge that the ar- 
rangement was incomplete. But this arrangement is as unprofitable as 
it is perplexing. If we call those words adverbs, when they modiiy 
verbs, their classification is easy and natural. 

We conceive of actions as performing, performed^ or not perform- 
ing nor performed, or as possibly done .or doing, and we associate ad- 
verbs with verbs to express these different ideas. Actions are perform- 
ed in some peculiar way, according to some plan, bad or good, wise 
or foolish, similar or dissimilar, to the mood of some other action, in 
some association, or in some state of isolation. These different pecu- 
liarities may be denominated the manner of the verb's action, and the 
words expressing these ideas are called adverbs of manner. Actions 
must be performed at some time, and in some place; hence adverbs of 
time and place. Actions may be repeated, or may stand related to some 
other action or actions. These peculiarities are expressed, by words 
called adverbs of number and order. These eight particulars embrace 
all the important ideas, that are associated with the action of verbs, or 
participles, and may be considered a classification of the contractions* 
which are added to verbs, sufficiently extensive for grammatical preci- 
sion. 



128 PHILOSOPHICAL GRA3IMAR. 

' Exercises in Parsing. 

1. [The traveller described the (lofty) castle] (decaying 
gradually.) 2. [Very few (literary) men (ever) become 
(distinguished) poets.] 3. (The great) [Milton excels (not) 
Homer.] 4. [The (Roman) women (once voluntarily) con- 
tributed (their most precious) jewels] (to save the city.) 
5. [The river Funza, (falling perpendicularly,) forms a 
(vast) cataract.] 6. (Attentive [servants (always) drive 
horses] (very carefully;) (negligent) [servants (often) drive 
them] (very carelessly.) 7. (Assiduous) [scholars improve] 
(very fast;) (idle) [scholars learn] (none at all.) 8. [Friend- 
ship (often) ends] (in love,) but [love] (in friendship never.) 
(56) 

PREPOSITIONS. 

Q. 117. What are prepositions? 

A. Prepositions are words used to show the 
relation of two or more objects to each other, 

(5b) Gradually, in the first sentence, is an adverb of 
manner, added to the participle decaying, to show how it 
was decaying. It is a contraction of the phrase, in a grad- 
ual manner or way. Ever, in the second sentence, is an ad- 
verb of time, added to the verb become. It is equal to the 
phrase, at any time. Thus, very few literary men, at any 
time, become, dec. Once and voluntarily are adverbs added 
to contributed. Once is an adverb of time, and voluntarily, 
of manner; once, at one time; voluntarily, in a voluntary 
manner or way. Perpendicularly, in the fifth sentence, 
is an adverb of manner, answering to how, added to the par- 
ticiple falling. Very, in the sixth sentence, is a helping ad- 
verb, added to the adverb carefully; carefully belongs to 
drive; and very carefully is equal to the phrase, with great 
care. Very fast, in the seventh sentence, is a principal and 
secondary adverb added to the verb improve; they are equal 
to the phrase, in a rapid manner. None at all, is an ad ver- 
bal phrase, belonging to learn. It is an adverb of negation. 
For an explanation of the preposition in, see the explanations 
<s>f the parsing exercises under prepositions. 






PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 129 

and in construction, have preceding and suc- 
ceeding objective words; as, He threw the 
stone into the water. 

Q. 118. Do prepositions always show the relation of ob- 
jective words? 

A. No; the words called prepositions do not 
always show the relation of objective words. 
When they do not, they are used with nouns 
and adnouns to describe other nouns; as, the 
man of honor, will not act meanly; \<Then 
said the woman of Samaria, {am) 

(am) The man of honor, and the honorable man, express precisely the 
same idea— they are equivalent expressions. The phrase of honor de- 
scribes the noun, in the very same way, that the adnoun honorable does, 
and must, for the same reason, belong to the same classification of 
words.— Words are classed because of their manner of meaning. The 
phrase of Samaria distinguishes the woman who spoke to our Saviour, 
from a woman of some other place— It is a descriptive phrase, and 
therefore, must be classed with adnouns. If I say the man on the chair 
struck the boy in the room, the phrases on the chair and in the room are 
descriptive phrases, designating the man and the boy. The words of, 
on and in, in these sentences do not "connect words and show the rela- 
tion between them," and therefore are not prepositions, but they unite 
with nouns to describe ox define other nouns, and therefore, those words, 
and the nouns with which they are united, are adnouns or adnominal 
phrases. 

Adverbal phrases, which are admitted by the old grammarians, in- 
volve the very same principle, that is involved in adnominal phrases, 
The principle is this. A number of words uniting their significations, 
so as to represent one single complex idea, cease, in this connection, to 
be the representatives of separate and distinct ideas, and therefore can- 
not be considered, as separate and distinct words; but a compound term 
representing a single complex idea, and must be classed with the 
words, which represent the ideas of the class, to which this complex 
idea belongs— I do not mean the logical class, but the philosophical 
class. The words thus used having no separate and distinct meaning* 
or manner of meaning, are not entitled to a distinct, and separate claV- 
ncation. 

; And it was by attempting to give those words, what they gave up 
m those connections, that led Mr. Kirkham to give us so many anoma- 
lies, which cannot be parsed according to the general rules or princi- 
ples of grammar, without supplying prepositions, where none are un- 
derstood, to govern the nouns which are in those phrases. If we admit 
that prepositious govern the objective case, we can parse the words, in 
those phrases, separately, by introducing prepositions, where none are 
understood, and where it would not do to let the eye of common sense 
see them in print. But if we deny the government of prepositions, as 



130 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 119. Are the nouns and pronouns following preposi- 
tions in the objective case? 

A. Yes; but prepositions do hot govern the 
objective ease, as, is mistakingly affirmed; they 
only show the relation of words in the objective 
case. The words which they show the rela- 
tions of must both be in the objective case. 

Q. 120. How is the noun or pronoun following the preposi- 
tion, governed in the objective case? 

A. - By the action of the same verb that gov- 
erns the noun or pronoun preceding it; as, He 
threw a stone against the house. The action 
expressed by "threw" first affects the "stone;" 
the stone is put in motion and is continued in mo- 
tion until it reaches the "house," and then the 
house is affected by the act of throwing — re- 
ceives a blow — and the preposition against on- 
ly shows the relation of those objective words* 
(an) 

truth requires us to do, those phrases cannot be parsed by the applica- 
tion of any principle or rule in the language. And the reason is obvi- 
ous, the words composing those phrases, do not represent separate and 
distinct ideas, and therefore, the principles which apply to words, as 
the representatives of distinct ideas, cannot apply to these words, be- 
cause they do not represent distinct ideas, or have no distinct manner 
of meaning. Those phrases arise out of the very necessity of things, 
because we cannot have in language a distinct name or peculiar term 
for each particular individual idea. And if there is such a thing as a 
single complex idea, that idea cannot be represented by a simple term, 
or single word having a simple signification; hence the necessity of 
combining words, or of phrases to represent those ideas. 

(an) If I say, He struck the house with a stone, I declare the same 
fact. In this sentence the words house and stone are affected by the 
verb struck, in the way they were by the verb threw, in the one given as 
an example; but here the word house is placed before the preposition,, 
and is the direct object of the verb struck; and the word stone is placed 
after the preposition with, though it is affected by the verb struck in 
this sentence, precisely as it is in the other,, by the verb throw. 

Prepositions ought, in strict philosophical correctness, to be classsd 
with adnouns. They are nothing but adnouns describing the local re- 
lations of nouns and pronouns. But the term "preposition" will pro- 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 131 

Q. 121. Which are the principal prepositions? 

With, through, from, to, for, by, beneath, 

duce no embarrasment, provided the nature and use of the words be 
well understood. 

Prepositions are either nouns or verbs, both in their origin and sig- 
nification. This will appear from the following etymologies: 

With is from the Saxon or Gothic verb withan, which means td join, to 
unite. With is the imperative of this verb, and still retains its primi- 
tive meaning. A ship with sails, means a ship which has sails joined 
to it. 

Through comes from the Gothic noun Dauro, Daur, Saxon Dora % 
Dune, Dure, Thu, which means door. 

Nouns. Prepositions. 

^ Tinnr ) Thourough, thorough, 

English, j ^ ruke , | Thurghjt thorow, 

Saxon, JdS£,&, JS"3S£?* 

^Thura, $Thurb,Thor, 

Gothi0 ' jlX- ' JThairk, 

German, { S^Thor, J Durch. 

f Thurah, T Thuruh, Thurah, 

„, . JThur, Thor, IThur, Duruch, 

1 eutomc, -j Turaj Dura f Duruc? Duruh) 

LDure, J Durch, Purh. 

From comes from the Saxon and Gothic noun/rwm, which means 
beginning, origin, source. This is its meaning as a preposition. 

To is derived from the Gothic noun Taue, taughts, which means 
end, termination; and this is still its signification. (See note x.) 

For is derived from the Gothic noun fairina, which means cause* 

Of comes from the Saxon and Gothic noun afara, afara, which 
means offspring, succession, follower, consequence. The fragment 
©/is used both in Saxon and Gothic, and has the signification of of in 
•English. 



♦"Then cometh ydelnesse, that is a yate of all harmes. This ydel- 
nesse is ? the thorruke of all wycked and vylayne thoughtes." 

Chaucer's Parson's Tale. 

f "Releived by thyn fynyte grace and goodness of our said lord 
ihrugh the meane of the medeatrice of mercy." 

The dictes and sayinges of the phelosophers, 1477. 



132 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

under, beyond, toward or ward, among, 
amongst, along, round, around, aside, abroad, 

By, (in the Saxon written hi, be, big % ) is the imperative byth of the 
Anglo-Saxon verb beon, to be. Be, by are the same word differently 
spelled, and our ancestors used them indifferenjly. 

Beneath is a compound of neath and by or be. (See by.) Neath 
comes from the Saxon noun neothan or neothe, (Dutch neden, Danish 
ned, German niedere, Swedish nedre, neder.) It means nadir or bot- 
tom. Von boven tot beneden, (Dutch;) i. e. from the top to the bot- 
tom. 

Under is a compound of on, which is a contraction of upon, (sec 
upon,) and neothan, on-neder, the place at the bottom. 

Beyond, (in Saxon, withgeondan, bigeond, begeond,) means be passed. 
It is the imperative of beon, compounded with the past participle geond, 
geoned or goned, of the verb gon, passed tense, gangan or gongan, to 
go, or to pass. So that ^beyond any place," means "oe passed that 
place," or be that place passed. 

Ward is the Saxon imperative of the verb wardion or weardian, to 
look, to direct the view. 

"Take reward of (i. e. pay regard to or look again at,) thyne 'owne 
vale we, that thou ne be to foule to thyself." — Chancers Parson 1 s Tale. 

Among, amongst, are the same word differently spelled, from the 
past participle ge-mancged or gemencged, of the Saxon verb gemenc- 
gan, and the Gothic tamainjan, which means mixed, mingled, and this 
is still its signification. 

"The wheat grows among the rye," i. e. mixed or mingled with the 
rye. The wheat and rye mingled grow. 

Amidst, amid, are merely the Saxon word on-middan, a compound 
of on or upon, (see upon,) and the noun middeal, middle; this noun iff 
still used in our language. 

Along is a compound of on or upon and long< the past participle of 
the Saxan verb lengian, to long, i. e. to make long, to lengthen, to 
stretch out. Lang, long is an adnoun, along is on-length. 

Round, around. The place of these words are supplied in Saxon by 
hweil, on hwil, (Dan. and Swe., om-kring, Dutch, om-ring,) all mean- 
ing a circle. Around is a contraction of on or upon and round. 

Aside, abroad, across, astride, are compounds of on or upon, and the 
English words side, broad, cross, stride. (See on or upon.) 

About is composed of on or upon, and the Saxon noun boda, which 
means the first extremity or boundary of any thing; hence on-b&da % 
on-buta, abuta, about. 

After, is from the Gothic noun aftaro, Saxon after, back or hinder 
part. Aft is a contraction of after, and is still used as a noun by our 
seamen. 

Upon, up, over, bove, above. These prepositions have one common 
origin and signification. In the Saxon ufa, ufera, ufemaft are adnouns, 
high, higher, highest, from the noun, ufon, ufan, ufa, height. These 
words all mean the place above some other thing. Bove comes from 
be-ufan or bufan, and has the same signification that upon has. They 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 133 

across, astride, about, after, upon, up, over, 
above, in, into, within, without, below, beside, 
before, behind, betwixed, between, (ao) 

all mean top or head. Uppermost is the Saxon indefinite comparison of 
their adnoun ufa, high, ufemcpft, highest or uppermost. 

7tt,isfroni the Gothic noun inna, interior, visera and in its second- 
ary meaning- cave, cell, or cavern. 

Into, is a compound of inna and taui, tauhts, end, termination. 

When I say I will go into the house, I mean, that my going will end, 
at tlie interior of the house. 

Within, is a compound of with and in, from withan and inna, (which 
see.) Within is often misapplied — used where the sense of inna is 
alone signified. 

Without, is a compound of withan and out, (see withan.) Home Tooke 
say, out is from a noun in the northern languages, which signifies the 
skin or outer part of the body. 

On, is a mere contraction of upon, (see upon.) Below, before, behind, 
beside, betwixt, or between, are compounds of by or be, and the nouns 
fore, hind, low, side, twixt and tween. (See by or be, from beon.) The 
nouns fore, hind, low and side are still in use, as adnouns or nouns; 
as, the fore part, the hind part, a low part, the, side. 

Tween, is from the Saxon noun twegen, or twain, two, and twixt, is 
from the Gothic noun twos, two. These are combined with the im- 
perative of the Saxon verb beon. 

Betwixt, is written in Saxon betweohs, betweox, betwux, betwyx and 
betwyxL 

I might extend these etymologies farther, but the design of the pres- 
ent work forbids. What is said is sufficient to prove the position taken 
that prepositions are both in their origin and signification, either nouns 
or verbs. 

Many prepositions are compound words, the representative of com- 
plex ideas; they all belong to the family of the discretives and are 
very nearly allied to adverbs. They are added to nouns, to describe tlie 
relations which the actions of verbs constitute between the objects ef- 
fected by those actions. If I lay my hat on the table, the verb lay 
produces a new relation between the hit and table; on describes that 
I relation. (See the note on the government of prepositions where this 
\ subject is more fully explained.) 

(ao) Writers have differed very much as to the number of preposi- 
tions. Home Tooke gives the following account of those differences: 
"The ancient Greek grammarians admitted only eighteen, (six mono- 
syllables, and twelve dissyllables.) The ancient Latin grammarians 
above fifty. Scotus determines them to be fifty-nine. Though the 
'moderns, Sanctius, Scioppius, Perizonius, Vossius, and others have en- 
deavored to lessen the number without fixing it. 

Our countryman, Wilkings, thinks that thirty-six are sufficient. 

Girard says, that the French language has done the business effec- 
tually with thirty-two.— And that he could not with the utmost atten- 
tion discover any more. But the authors of the Encyclopedia, though 



, 



13 



I 



134 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



Remarks on Prepositions and their government of case* 

It has been supposed that the adnouns of local relation 
called "prepositions," govern a following objective word, when 

they also, as well as Girard, admitted only simple prepositions, have 
found in the same language forty-eight. And Buffier gives a list of 
seventy-five; and declares that there is a greater number besides, which 
he has not mentioned." 

"The greater part of authors have not ventured even to talk of any 
particular number. And those who have, (except in the Greek,) no" 
two authors have agreed in the same language. Nor any one author 
attributed the same number to any two different languages." (Diver- 
sions of rurley, vol. 1, p. 241,2.) 

This disagreement did not proceed from inattention to the subject, 
but from a misconception of the nature and use of those words. 

They were originally, and for a long time, classed with .conjunctions 
—believed to be the very same sort of words. Mr. Harris says, "a 
preposition is a part of speech, devoid itself of signification, but so for- 
med as to unite two words that are significant, and that refuse to co- 
alesce or unite of themselves." This is any thing, rather than an in- 
telligent definition for a class of words. If words are the signs of 
ideas, what ideas can words signify, which have no signification? 

It is not my intention to give the definite number of prepositions, 
but to explain their nature and use. Prepositions are complex terms, 
which are used for the purpose of signifying complex ideas, and are prin- 
cipally composed of nouns and verbs. (See note an.) These words are 
used to show the relations of other words, as John .sits on a chair. On, 
in this sentence, shows the relation between John and chair. I lay 
my hat on the table. On, in this sentence, shows the relation between 
hat and table. I lay my hat under the table. Under, shows the rela- 
tion between hat and table; — describes the new relation which the verb 
lay has produced between the table and the hat. — I cannot move any 
thing without placing it in a new relation to some other thing. This 
is a self-evident fact, and we must have some words to describe those 
new relations which are produced "by the actions expressed by verbs, 
or we could not describe them, and the medium of communication 
would be incomplete. And as those relations have reference to place, 
we must take into the words describing these relations, the noun which 
contain the names of these places. We see in the etymology of the 
principle prepositions, that they come, at least in part, from nouns, 
many of which are now obsolete, which contain the name of the places 
which describe the local relations of the nouns, connected with the 
prepositions. I say in part, because, these nouns are, connected gen- 
erally with the signification of some obsolete verb, and the signification 
of the prepositions generally are the significations of those nouns and 
verbs combined; and this is the reason why some prepositions some- 
times become conjunctions, they have a verbal signification, as all con- 
junctions have — those nouns and verbs were in the early stage of lan- 
guage used separately to signify what our present prepositions signify. 
Prepositions, I conceive, describe the relations of nouns to each other, 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 135 

it is expressed. To declare a total disbelief in this position, 
is to start a question of vast importance in language, and one 
which deserves to be well examined. 

It is proper in the first place, to see what is the philosoph- 
ical principle on which this doctrine is supposed to be found- 
ed. 

Taking the word into, in the example, "He threw the 
stone into the water." It is evident "into the water," in that 
sentence, does describe the condition in which the act of 
throwing places the stone; and as description is the property 
of the adnoun, the word into must be an adnoun, because it 
describes a noun. The adnoun the belongs to the noun wa- 
ter, and does not describe the noun stone; therefore the de- 
scription belongs to the word into. (See prin. 117.) 

We can have no rational conception of government withuot 
the exercise of some governing power or influence. To place 
a word or thing, or cause it to be, in any case in which it was 
not before, or otherwise would not be, is most clearly to per- 
form some action — to make use of the necessary means to 
produce this effect. But the word into, as employed in the 
above example or any other word of its class, does not express 
the active exertion of power or influence, which produces 
change, and therefore, does not produce change, in the follow- 
ing word or any other object- In the above sentence, the 
first effect of the action of throwing, falls on the stone, as its 
direct object. The unavoidable nature of this effect is, to 
place the stone in a new position. This position must be de- 
scribed, or it cannot be understood. The word into with its 
correlative bearing, expressed or understood, does describe 
it. ^ The stone cannot, and therefore, does not take a new po- 
sition, without producing an effect on some other object. It 
does produce an effect on the water, in consequence of being 
thrown, by displacing so much as its own bulk occupies, and 
agitating a greater or less portion of the rest; these facts are 
plainly manifest to the senses. The water is therefore the 
second object of the verb's action and the incidental object of 
the verb threw. We may test this principle of language by 

which are affected by actions expressed by verbs, and nothing else.— 
1 his I conceive to be their use, and their only use. These words ought 
to be classed with adnouns; they are added to nouns to describe them, 
tfut it their nature and use is properly understood, the name preposi- 
tion, which is not unappropriate, can have no bad effect, and thisffood 
one, it will harmonise with the present dictionaries. 



136 PHILOSOPHICAL- GRAMMAR* 

substituting the words called prepositions for the word into* 
He threw the stone, up, down, on, upon, under, below, &c* 
all of which describe the state or condition the stone is placed 
in, by the action of the verb threw. 

It may be objected — If the principle here contended for. 
is admitted, it will follow, that prepositions in the learned lan- 
guages, no more than in the English, govern an objective 
word. I know the doctrines here contended for, brings me 
into collision with the learning of the world, and I really 
quail, in my feelings,, at the thought of encountering such a 
formidable and honorable opponent; but I fear truth more, 
and I conceive, truth requires me to take the ground I take y 
and I am confident, that truth will enable me to maintain it, 
Copernicus had the learning of ages to oppose, when he ad- 
vanced the present system of astronomy; yet he succeeded,, 
though alone. But I am not alone. And if I was, I would 
"hope and try." 

The celebrated Home Tooke, the prodigy of learnings 
denied not only the government of prepositions, but, their 
very existence as a separate part of speech. And the late 
Wm. S. Carclell, who evinced more learning and philological 
acumen than all the authors of the Murray school, in this 
country, expressed a disbelief in the doctrine; but did not 
enter into an extensive examination of the subject. 

Let us look into the Latin, and see if we cannot discover 
a recognition of the principle, here contended for. "Verbs of 
accusing, condemning and acquitting, with the accusative of 
the person, govern the genitive of the crime; as, Arguit me 
furti. He accuses me of theft. Meipsum inertiae condemno. I 
condemn my self of laziness. Ilium Homicidii absolvent. — 
They acquit him of manslaughter." — Latin Grammar, page 
100. 

In all these cases the verbs govern two nouns, in the oblique 
cases, but the last noun governed by the Latin verb, follows 
the preposition of in English. Do not the verbs accuse, 
condemn and acquit affect the nouns theft, laziness and man- 
slaughter in English, the very same way they do in Latin? If 
they do they govern those words in English also. But the 
second noun is in the Latin genitive. Now prepositions in 
English do not govern the genitive, if we admit preposi- 
tions govern, these nouns' will be in a different situation 
or case, in our language, from what they are in the Latin 5 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 137 

where they are situated in the very same situation, and affect- 
ed in the very same way. 

"Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring and taking away 
govern the accusative with the dative; as, Comparo Virgili- 
um Homero. I compare Virgil to Horner. Narras fabulim 
surdo. You tell a story to a deaf man. Eripuit me moti. He 
rescued me from death" — Ibid, page 101. In these exam- 
ples we have verbs governing two oblique cases, and have not 
the verbs the very same meaning and effect in English? 

"Verbs of asking and teaching admit of two accusatives, 
the first of the person, and the second of the thing; as, Posce 
Deumveniam. Beg pardon of God, Docuit me grammat- 
icam. He taught me grammar" — Ibid. Does not beg af- 
fect pardon and God, in English, the very way it does in 
Latin? And are they not as much the object of beg in one lan- 
guage; as, they are in the other, though the prepositiou of 
comes between them in English* Me and grammar are both 
affected by the verb taught, without the intervention of a 
preposition. In these three Latin verbs, the following noun 
is affected by the verb, without the invention of a preposition, 
and therefore, they are said to govern two cases; but the fol- 
lowing noun in English, is as much affected by the verb, as 
it is in Latin, and is as much the object of verbal action. This 
I conceive to be a plain matter of fact. 

In the examples given in Latin to exemplyfy the govern- 
ment of prepositions, the nouns following the prepositions is 
just as much affected by the actions of the verbs preceding 
the prepositions, as the last noun is, where the verb governs 
two nouns. "Eo in Scolam." 1 go into the school. Does 
not go, in this sentence, affect the noun school as much as the 
verb beg affects God, in the example above? It surely does. 
And the reason the nouns following the prepositions, are in 
the objective or oblique cases, is, those nouns are affected by 
the actions of verbs which precede those prepositions. It is 
the preceeding verb which affects the following noun, and 
not the preposition. (See intransitive verbs page 77.) 

The very same principle obtains in the Greek language, 
but I forbear, believing that what I have said will furnish the 
philological student a clue, by which he can prosecute the 
enquiry to any desirable extent. 

The pronouns in English, and the nouns and pronouns in 
the learned languages, which follow prepositions are in the ob- 
jective case, because they are affected by the action of verbs 

13* 



138 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 

preceding the prepositions. Prepositions show the relations 
of nouns in the objective case, and the same verb governs the 
preceding and succeeding object. The preceding objective 
word is frequently not expressed, because it is the objective 
relations of the verb's agent; as, he walks (himself) on the 
floor. (See note ai.) 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

1. [The all wise Creator bestowed the power] (of speech) 
(on man, for the most excellent uses.) 2. [Augustus heard 
the orator] (pleading the client's cause,) (in a flow of the 
most powerful eloquence.) 3. [Fair Cynthia smiles serene- 
ly] (over nature's soft repose.) 4. (Life's) [varying schemes 
(no more) disturb the (laboring) mind] (of man.) 5. [Sep- 
imius stabbed Pompey] (standing) (on the shore of Egypt.) 
6. [A beam (of tranquillity) (often) plays] (round the heart) 
(of the truly pious man.) 7. [The thoughts (of former 
years) glide] (over my soul) like [swift shooting meteors] 
(over Ardven's gloomy vale.) 8. (At the approach of day,) 
(night's) (swift) [dragoons cut the clouds] (full fast;) and 
[ghosts, (wandering) (here and there,) troop] (home) (to 
church yards.) (66.) 

(6b) "Of power," in the first sentence, is an adnominal 
phrase, composed of a preposition and a noun; it is added to 
the noun power to show what kind of power the creator be- 
stowed. Of does not in this phrase connect objective words^ 
and therefore, is not a preposition, in its present use, but 
unites with the noun speech to form the description of the 
noun power. 

"On" is a preposition and shows the relation between pow- 
er and man, the objects affected by the verb bestow. 

"In a flow of the most powerful eloquence" is an adverbal 
phrase, added to the participle pleading to modify its mean- 
ing. The prepositions, adnouns and nouns in this phrase, 
unite and form a complex descriptive term or phrase, and 
thereby lose their claim to individual classifications. 

"Over" in the third sentence, is a preposition and shows the 
relation between the noun repose and the objective relation 
of Cynthia. She smiles (herself) over repose* 

"Of man" in the fourth sentence, is an adnominal phrase 
composed of the preposition of and the noun man, it describes 
the noun mind., 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 139 

CONJUNCTIONS, 
Q. 122. What are conjunctions? 

A. Conjunctions are words used to connect 
sentences; joining two or more simple senten- 
ces into one compound sentence; as, he is hap- 
py because he is good, (ap) 

"Of tranquillity" is an adnominal phrase, added to the noun 
beam, to show what sort of a beam it is; it is composed of a 
preposition and noun. Round is a preposition, and shows the 
relation between beam and heart, i. e. the objective relation 
of beam and heart. The beam plays (itself) round the heart. 
"Of the truly pious man, is an adnominal phrase added to the 
noun heart to describe it. The words in this phrase lose 
their claim to individual classification, and by uniting and 
mingling their significations,, form a complex descriptive term 
or phrase. 

"Over," in the sixth sentence, shows the relation between 
the objective relation of thoughts and soul. Thoughts glide 
(themselves) over soul. "Over," in the latter member of 
this sentence shows the same relation between the objective 
relation of meteors and vale. "Of former years" is an adnom- 
inal phrase; (see above;) and like, in this sentence, is a con- 
junction; (see next parsing lesson.) "At the approach of 
day," in^the last sentence, is an adverbal phrase, added to 
the verb cut. It is an adverb of time, and answers 
to the question when. "Full fast" is an adverbal phrase of 
manner; it answers to the question how. "Here and there" 
is an adverbal phrase of place, added to the participle wan- 
dering; it is a phrase of place, and answers to the question 
where. "Home" is the object of troop after the preposition 
to understood; troop to home. 

(ap) 1. Conjunctions connect sentences by bringing- different actions 
of the same agent, or agents, into an t uninterrupted succession; as, He 
went to Baltimore and returned to York. They purchased goods, ( ) 
rented a house, ( ) filled it with shelves and opened store 

2. By connecting a condition, or supposition, or cause with the af- 
firmation of the sentence; as, I will go, if he come or Iwillnotgo,i/he 
come. He must be punished unless he repent. "Except ye repent 
ye shall all perish." "They will not believe though one were (was) to 
rise from the dead." He must perish unless he repent. "Except 
ye abide in the ship ye cannot be saved." 



i 



140 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Q. 123. Which are the principal conjunctions? 

A, And, but, if, tho' or though, unless, eke, 
yet, still, else, without, least, since, or, as, and, 
so, and the compounds because, besides, not- 
withstanding, nevertheless, and the participle 
provided and the verb except, (aq) 

3. By assigning a reason for the agent's action; as, He submitted,/^ 
or because it was in vain to resist. 

4. By showing what follows as the consequence of what is, or has- 
been done; as, he drank poison, therefore, he must die. 

5. By showing that some of the persons or things which are in the 
aubjective case to the verb,. are unconnected with the action expressed; 
as, They all went to Harrisburgh but, or except, one. i. e. One of the 
persons represented by the pronoun they did not go. 

6. By presenting two agents, one of which is the agent of the verb, 
but which is not declared; as, James or John went to town — James 
went to town, or John went to town. 

7. By showing that action is or will be performed, notwithstanding 
the performance may be rendered difficult by the intervention of some 
other thing or things; as, I will go though it rain. He was threatened 
with death, nevertheless he ventured. He has finished his work, not- 
withstanding the difficulties ho met with. 

8. By showing that what is affirmed is similar to some other verbal 
affirmation; as, He runs as fast as a deer, i. e. as a deer runs. 

The above is not given as a complete enumeration of the different 
ways in which compound sentences are formed; but it is hoped, that it 
may be found extensive enough to enable the student of grammar to un- 
derstand the nature and use of these very important words. Different 
conjunctions may be used to engrail different members on a simple sen- 
tence, by which means the compound sentence mav become very long, 
and often obscure; but this is not the better way. The simple sentence 
had better be repeated, than the compound one made ambiguous. We 
should never add so many branches as to hide the trunk. But this sub- 
ject belongs to rhetoric, more particularly, than to an elementary trea- 
tise on grammar. 

(aq) The division f conjunctions into disjunctive, conjunctive, 
adjunctive, &c, have no foundation and arise from ignorance of the 
nature and use of those words. To say a word joins and disjoins is a 
contradiction; and the adnoun conjunctive is tautology, the name of 
the word indicates its use. It would be as proper to s.»v a human man. 
These words all belong to one class, and their use is signified by their 
name. They have the same use and manner of meaning. 

All conjunctions are verbal in their character; they are essen- 
tially verbs or participles. They represent action — show the actions 
which join sentences. If conjunctions connect sentences, they surety 
do something, and, in this particular, they agree in character with verbs 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



141 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



1. [Joseph and his brother reside] (in New York.) 2. 
[The sun, moon and stars admonish us] (of a superior) and 



The following etymologies will 


prove their claim to verbal character, 


beyond a dou 


tt: 




Asd, ' 




'Anad, 




"Ananad, to add, to join, 


If, 


, 


Gif, 




Gifan, to give or grant, 


An,* 


!> 


An, 


o 


An an, to grant, 


But, 


o 


Bot, 


EL 


Botan, to boot, 


But, 


o 


Be-utan, 


o t 


Beon-utan, to be-out,. 


Though 




Thafig, 


1- 


Thafigan, i 


or 


£ 


or 


QQ 


or > to allow, 


Trio' 


r r 


Thof, 


« 1 


Thafian, ) 


Unless, 


p 


Onles, 




Onlesan, to dismiss, 


Eke, 


6 


Eac, 


d 


Eacan, to add, 


Yet, 


3 


Get, 


© 


Getan, to get, 


Still, 


o 
o 


Stell, 


g- 


Stellan, to put, 


Else, 


0- 


Ales, 




Alesan, to dismiss. 


Without, „ 




[, Wyrth-utan, 




h Wyrthan-utan, to be-out, 


Least, is past participle 


Lesed of Lisan, to dismiss, 




fSitli-than, ") 
Syne, 
Sociad-es, )-is the p 




Since;, < 


ast participle ofTSkn*, to eon, 




Sidde or 






^Sin 


-es, 









Provided is nothing but the participle of the verb to provide. 

Except is a pure verb and may be used" for one sense of hut, he-out f 
or out-take. 

Because is a compound of the imperative of heon, and the English 
noun cause. 

Besides is a compound of the imperative of heon and the noun side or 



Notwithstanding is a compound of the negative adverb not; with, the 
imperative ofwithan, and the present participle standing. 

I might extend these derivations to all the conjunctions; but enough 
is showed to prove that these words are essentially verbs; and that it 
is their verbal signification that enables them to show the connection 
of sentences. This view is confirmed by the fact, that the conjunction 
except is still used as a verb, and provided is a pure English participle. 

Some may object that if conjunctions are verbs, they must have 
objects, since all verbs are active, and must have objects. I reply, 
they have objects, as much as any other verbs in the language; 
1 but their objects are not nouns or pronouns, but the simple senien- 
ces which follow them; as, John went to town, and James re- 
turned home. James returned home, is a distinct and independent 
sentence, connected by and to the sentence, John went to town, and is 
the object of the imperative verb and. 



*An was formerly used as a conjunction, and was equivalent in 
sense to if. If is not now used. It takes its place or rather serves alone. 



i 



142 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 

(superintending power.) 3. [I respect my friend] because 
[he is upright] and (obliging.) 4. [Harriet] and [Jane obey 
their teacher] and [they improve] (rapidly.) 5. [EHenor] 
or [Helen, [who obeys her teacher,] improves] (very fast)* 
6. [Wisdom,] [virtue] and [meekness form (the good man's) 
happiness] and [interest;] [they support him] (in adversity) 
and [comfort him] (in affliction.) 7. [The United States*] as 
(justly) as [Great Britain, can] (boast) (of her literary insti- 
tutions.) (lb) 

(lb) And, in the first sentence is a conjunction, and con- 
nects the sentences, Joseph resides in New York, Joseph's 
brother resides in New York. And, in the second sentence,, 
connects the sentences, The moon admonishes us, &c> 
The stars admonish us, dec. In this sentence we have 
three simple sentences. The sun admonishes, &c, connect- 
ed by, and understood to the first sentences given. Harriet and 
Jane obey their teacher, is a compound member of the fourth 
sentence containing in it two simple sentences connected 
by and. (See number 1.) And connects with this com- 
pound member another compuund momboi« ; "they improve 
very fast." This member contains the two affirmations — 
Harriet improves very fast. Jane improves very fast. This 
sentence contains four simple affirmations, and four simple 
sentences. Becavse, in the third sentence, connects the 
sentences. I respect my friend. My friend is upright. ( ) 
My friend is obliging. Or, in the fifth sentence, connects 
the sentences. Eleanor improves, &c. Helen improves, &c. ? 
but divides only one certain affirmation between these two 

The prevailing theory of grammar admits that sentences and phrases 
may be the agents of verbs; and I think it is undeniable, that all agents 
may be objects too. In the first edition of this work, I admitted that 
and connected words; but a more minute investigation of the subject, 
convinced me that and, like other conjunctions, connected only sen- 
tences. In the sentence, John and James went to town, there are two 
distinct sentences couched in this (supposed to be,) simple one. John 
went to town, James went to town. These two separate and distinct 
affirmations are contained in the sentence, John and James went to 
town. In the sentence, "And the evening and the morning were the 
first day:" Gen. 1 and 4. the Hebrew reads "the evening was, and the 
morning was the first day." What is affirmed about the evening and 
morning, is affirmed by the verb in the singular, agreeing with the 
nouns severally in the singular, and thus making two affirmations, and 
two sentences. The present rule of syntax leads to no errors in gram- 
mar, but the same end may be obtained by a little different manner of 
presenting the principle involved in the rule. (See syntax.) 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 143 

EXERCISES IN ETYMOLOGY, 

Insert suitable prepositions in the place of the following 
dashes. 

Plead — the dumb. Qualify thyself — action — study. 
Think often — the worth — time. Live — peace — all 
men. Jest not — serious subjects. Take no part — slander. 
Guilt starts — its own shadow. Grudge not — giving. Go 
no t — sleep. Debate not — temptation. Depend not — 
the stores — others. Contend not — trifles. Many fall — 
grasping — things — their reach. Be deaf — detraction. 
When corn is ripe — October, it is gathered — the fields — 
men, who go — hill — hill — baskets — which they put the 
ears. 

Insert suitable conjunctions in the place of the following 
dashes. 

Love — fidelity are inseparably connected. Beware of 
parties — factions. Do well — boast not* Improve time 
— it flies. There would be few paupers — no time was lost. 

agents. Sentences connected by or are the most difficult to 
resolve into their simple members, because the very neces- 
sity of the case requires us, sometimes both to say and to do, 
more than enough, before we can do enough. If a crime is 
committed in a school, for which the teacher is compelled to 
inflict a certain punishment on the offender, and upon exam- 
ination, he finds that one of two boys is guilty, but he can- 
not tell which, he must punish both, to do what he is requir* 
i ed to do — to punish the offender. It is the same in discover- 
ing the agent of actions, we cannot tell which of two 
! persons does a thing, and yet when we are required to tell 
who did it, we have to say both did; but we say it by the aid 
i of this conjunction, in a way that shows but one acted, and 
if we attribute action to two agents, we must make two affir- 
mations. 

The two conjunctions, as, as, must be taken together in 
the last sentence. They connect the sentences, the United 
States can justly boast of her literary institutions. Great 
Britain can justly boast of her literary institutions. They 
are corresponding conjunctions. 

The pupil should be required to tell what each division of 
the minor section of the sentence describes. 



144 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Be not proud — thou art human. Honesty'is better — pol- 
icy. Neither he — I can do it. It must be done to-day — 
to-morrow. Though I should boast — I am nothing. 

INTERJECTIONS. 
(J. 124. What are Interjections? 

A. Interjections are words which express a 
sudden emotion of the mind; as, oh! alas! 

Q. 125. Which are the principal interjections? 

A. The principal interjections are, O! oh! ah! 

alas! pish! tush! heigh! hem! ho! hallo! foh! fy! lo! 

hark! hist! hail! all hail! 

Q. 126. Do interjections have any influence on the cases 
of the pronouns? 

A. Interjections are used with the indepen- 
dent case of pronouns, in the second person, 
and with the objective case of pronouns in the 
first person; as, Oh thou! oh me! 

Note. — Interjections are not properly words; but as it is necessary in 
parsing to call them something, they are admitted as a part of speech* 
But^when people laugh and cry and shriek and groan, &c. by ruk> 
grammar may explain what interjections mean. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 145 

PART IT. 

SYNTAX. 

Q. 127. What is Syntax? 

A. Syntax is that part of grammar, which 
teaches the proper arrangement of words in a 
sentence. 

Q. 128. How many parts has syntax? 

A. Four; Concord, Government, Position 
and Ellipsis. 

Q. 129. What is a sentence? 

A. A sentence is an assemblage of words, 
making complete sense. 

Q. 130. How many kind of sentences are there? 

A. Two—simple and compound. 

Q. 131. What is a simple sentence? 

A simple sentence contains one subject and 
one indicative verb; as. She reads well. 

Q. 132. What i3 a compound sentence? 

A. A compound sentence contains two or 
more simple sentences joined together by some 
connecting word or words, expressed or under- 
stood; as, She reads well, but she does not 
write correctly. He reads well and he writes 
correctly, but he does not understand arith- 
metic, (ar) 

(ar) A sentence is a single affirmation, made by one verb in the indic- 
ative mood. This affirmation may be connected with several other affir- 
mations, and thereby form a compound sentence. The pupil maf 
know the number of simple sentences, continued in a compound sen* 
ience, by the number of verbs, in the indicative mood, in the compound 
eentence; i. e. the number expressed or understood. Every verb in the 
indicative mood, expressed or understood, with its agent and object, 
forms a simple sentence. The student should be taught to 8>ria ail 
14 






146 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 

Q. 133. What is concord? 

A. Concord is the agreement of words with 
each other, in person, number, gender and 

case. 

Q. 134. What is government? 

A. Government is the power, which one 
word has over another, causing it to be in some 
case or form. 

Q. 135. What is position? 

A. Position is the proper collection of 
words in a sentence. 

Q. 136. What is ellipsis? 

A. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or 
words, t© avoid disagreeable repetitions, and 
to express our ideas concisely, and with 
strength and elegance. 

Q. 137. What is a phrase? 

A. A Phrase is two or more words put to- 
gether so as to form a part of a sentence; as, 
by and by, not at all, &c. 

CONCORD. 

RULE 1. 

I. Every verb of the indicative mood has an 
agent expressed or understood, with which it 
must agree, in person and number; as, Hove, 
thou lovest, he, she or it loves, I am, they are. 

the simple sentences separately, which are contained in the compound 
sentences, he is required to parse. 

In the sentence, He reads xcell and writes correctly, but does not un- 
derstand arithmetic. We have three simple sentences connected by 
the conjunctions and and but. 1. He reads well. 2. He writes cor- 
rectly. 3. He does not understand arithmetic. 



i 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 147 

Note 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun arc the 
agents of a verb, which expresses the action of a single agent, 
the verb must agree with the one which is next to it; as, Thou or I am 
in fault. I, thou or he is the author of it. George or 1 am to blame, 
I or thou art guilty. 

2. When a singular noun or pronoun and a plural one arc the 
agents of a verb* and yet but one of them performs the action 
expressed by the verb, the verb must agree witii tile plural noun or pro- 
noun; as, Neither poverty nor rielies vxrc injurious to him. I or they 

8, A noun of multitude may be doomed plural in reference, to Iti 
nonstit , or singular &i a collective wholcj but the leading 

in either cute, ought to be pretorvetfo u, u The auembly wti adjourned 
vote*" "The ewembly were divided among tlicvwlvcu." 

4. When whn ii the agent to a verb, the verh must agree with tho 
noun for which Who stands as, "lie who acts wisely deserves/' &c. 

5, When the agent of the verb is put by apposition, in different per- 
sons, the verb may agree with it in either person; us, lam the man who 
command you or who oommandt you. 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 1, 

[The girls was] (here yesterday.) 

Great pains was taken to little purpose. 

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. 

What avails tho best sentiments, if peoplo do not live 
agreeably to them. 

He dare not act contrary to his instructions. 

The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs uninjured, 
of a sound understanding, of friends and companions, are of- 
ten overlooked, or lightly esteemed, though they constitute a 
great part of human felicity. 

The employments of the busy, the enterprizes of the ambi- 
tious, and the exploits of the warlike; the virtues which fyrni 
the happiness, and the vices which occasion the raiser! 
mankind; all that makes a great figure on the theatre of the 
world, originates in that silent and secret recess of thought 
which is hidden from every human eye. 

Note 1. Either thou or I are greatly mistaken, in our 
judgment, on this subject. 

I or thou am the person who must undertake the business 
proposed. 

James, thou or John art to blame. 

2. One or both the scholars was present. 

Some parts of the ship and cargo were received; but nei- 
, ther the sailors nor the captain icas saved. 



148 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 

Whether one person or more was concerned in the bus*' 
ness does not appear. 

The cares of life, or the deceitfulness of riches, choaks the 
seed of virtue in many a promising mind* 

3* The church have no power to inflict corporeal punish* 
meat. 

The people rejoice in that which ought id emm patnv 

The court hav§ jumt ended it§ mm'ton. 

The family was well when we left home* 

The committee was divided in their sentiments* 

Rule IL 

2. A fact expressed by a sentence or part of 
a sentence, may become the agent of verbal 
affirmation* The fact is always in the third 
person, singular number, and the verb must 
agree with it accordingly; as, That it is our 
duty to promote peace and harmony among 
mankind, admits not of a doubt, i. e., the fact, 
that it is our duty to promote, &c;, admits not 
of a doubt* 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 2. 

That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and 
bodies, to be just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be 
pious and faithful to Him that made us, admit not of any 
doubt, in a rational and well informed mind. 

To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence 
towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure 
means of becoming peaceful and happy. 

To live soberly, righteously and piously, are required of 

all men. 

To attack vice in the abstract, without touching persons 
are safe fighting, but it is fighting with shadows. 

That any thing can exist without existing in space, are to 
my mind incomprehensible. 

To fear no eye, and to suspect no tongue, are the great pre. 
rogative of innocence, (as) 

(as) The fact expressed, which becomes the agent of the verb, is oftea 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMtfAK. 149 

Rule III. 

3. Nouns and pronouns which mean the 
same person or thing, and which stand in the 
same relation to other words, are in apposition, 
and must always agree in case. They are 
agents or objects, according to the sense in 
which they are understood with reference to 
verbal action; as, She walks a queen. Tom 
struts a soldier. Death is the wages of sin. 
Alexander conquered king Darius. 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 3. . 

I saw his brother, he who went to church yesterday. 

It was John, him who preached repentance. 

They slew Verius, he who was mentioned before. 

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fonrth of July, 
1826, were both signers, and firm supporters of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. 

Augustus, the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius 
Caesar, is variously described by historians. 

We ought to love God, he who ereated the heavens and 
the earth. 

RULB IV. 

4. When two or more simple sentences have 
the same verb, and are brought into one by 
placing and between the agents, and using the 
verb in the plural number, the nouii£ and pro- 

in opposition with some following noun, which may become, by trans., 
position, the agent of the verb. And when different facts are associa- 
ted, the ybecome a plural agent of the verb, and the verb is followed by 
a noun in the plural number, which is also the subject of the verb; as, 
to be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence towards oth- 
ers, to cultivate piety towards God, are the sure means of becoming 
peaceful and happy. Means, is this sentence, is in apposition with the 
three facts, 1. To be of a pure and humble mind. 3. To exercise be- 
nevolence towards others. 3. To cultivate piety towards God. There 
are more errors committed in sentences of this kind than any others 
ihe student should make himself master of this rule. 

14* 






150 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



nouns in apposition with those agents, must he 
in the plural number; as, Simon and Andrew 
were fishers. 

And when these sentences are connected 
with other compound sentences of the same 
kind, having the same agents, the pronouns and 
nouns of those sentences, must be in the plural 
number; as, Adams and Jefferson, they who 
died on the 4th of July, 1826, were both sign- 
ers and firm supporters of the Declaration of 
Independence. (See note aq.) 

Note 1. When two or more nouns, for the purpose of clearness or 
emphasis, are applied to the same thing, they are said to be ia apposi- 
tion, and not to form a plural; as, "My desire and prayer to God is, thai 
Israel may be saved." 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 4* 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices- 
Wisdom, virtue and happiness dwells with the golden me- 
diocrity. 

The welfare and security of every society consists in unity,, 
What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when 
youth think they have no need of assistance. 

Religion and virtue confers on the mind principles of noble* 
idependence. 

Humility and love constitutes the essence of true religion- 
Pride and vanity always renders its possessor despicable* 
Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy 
mother, bind it continually upon thy heart. 

Rule V. 

5. Pronouns must agree with the nouns they 
represent in person, number and gender; asy 
Jane is a good girl, she studies her lesson welL 

Note 1. When a pronoun stands for a noun of the eommon gender 
as, parent, child, &c, it is used in the masculine gender; as, the child 
was sick, but he is now recovered. 

2, The pronoun it, when used in the sense of the said, maf 
stand for nouns of either gender or number; as, It is the man. I belie* r 
it to be them* 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAE. 151 

3. Where who is used as an interrogatory, it must agree in case with 
the noun or pronoun, that contains the answer; as, Who did this work? 
James did it Whom do I see? I see him. 



VIOLATIONS ON RULE 5. 

An orator's tongue ought to be agreeable to the ear of 
Iftetr audience. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment and put them on Jacob. 

Take handfulls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it toward 
heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small 
dust. 

No one ought to incur censure for being tender of their re- 
putation. 

Note 1. The child was lost, but it is now found. 

The parent was sorry, but she now rejoices, (at) 

3. Whom went to town? Who did you hear pleading?— 

Whom hat is this? Whom horse is that? The God who we 

worship. 

Rule VI. 

6. Adnouns of unity must be added to nouns 
in the singular number; as, one man, that man; 
and adnouns of plurality must be added to 
nouns in the plural numbers; as, two men f 
those men (au) 

(at) It is the past participle of the Saxon verb hiatan, (See note $.) 
And being a participle, it belongs as much to one number or gender as 
it does for another, and may stand for nouns denoting either sex. Good 
writers often use the pronoun it in this way, and the etymology of th« 
word authorises this use. It is not improper to say, "the child was lost, 
but it is now found." The note shows what is the prevailing custom, iff 
those cases, and the exercises are designed to make the student ac- 
quainted with the application of the principle, upon which this custom 
is founded. 

(au) That is the past participle of the Saxon verb thean, thegan or 
thion, (see note n,) and in its primary meaning, as a participle, belong* 
as much to one number as the other; but prevailing usage confines it to 
the singular number. But this practice is not universal, as may be 
seen in the writings of the best scholars. That is often added to noun* 
in the plural number, but I would recommend the use of whi$h in ail 
sueb ease*, . 



152 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAK, 

VIOLALIONS OP RULE 6. 

I have not seen my parents this ten months. 

Please to give me that scissors. 

We do not approve of these kind of power. 

Those kind of favors soften and injure the mind. 

A wall fifty foot high, two thick,/oo£ and seventy foot long. 

GOVERNMENT. 

Rule I. 

7. A noun or pronoun, when it the object of 
verbal action, must be in the objective case; as, 
he loved her for her virtues. 

Note. The present participle expresses action, which affects an ob> 
jeetive word; as, He is instructing us. The tutor is admonishing 
Charles. 

Remarks Grammarians have said, that participles hate the same gov- 
ernment that the verbs have from which they are derived; but this is a 
mistake—* the past participle never governs an objective word. Tha 
past participle belongs to a noun, which is the subject of verbal affirma- 
tion; ate, She is loved. He is killed. 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 1. 

Ye who were dead he quickened. 

Who did they entertain so freely? 

They who opulence made proud, and who luxury corrupt- 
ed, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 

He and they we know, but who are ye? 

He invited my brother and 1 to pay him a visit. 

Who did they send on that mission? v 

They who he most injured, he had the greatest reason to 
love* 

He loves / and thou. 

Note. The tutor is instructing J and James. 

Esteeming theirsehes wise, they became fools. 

Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was studious te 
avoid all intercourse. 

I could not avoid considering, in some degree, they as ene< 
tnies to me, and he as a suspicious friend. 






PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 153 

Rule II. 

8. A pronoun which signifies possession 
must be in the possessive case; as, John gave 
his hat to James, The tree m known by Us 
fruit. Mary lovei her sinter. 

VIOLATION! OF RULE 2. 

Washington obtained he country's freedom. 

The Christian loves him God. 

Pride and vanity always render they possessor despicable, 

The father gave him inheritance to he son. 

The Saviour of the world gave he life for a world of en- 
emies; and yet the sinner refuses to give him him h$&rL 

The miser loves he gold more than him God. 

A virtuous daughter is a comfort to she mother; but a 
prodigal son breaks the heart of him father. 

Dutiful children obey them parents; but disobedient chil- 
dren sin against they God. 

POSITION, 

Rule I. 

9, When a noun or pronoun is the agent 
of a verb, it must be placed before the verb; as, 
The bird sings. The girls learn. They 
were. 

Note 1. When a question is asked, the agent is generally placed af- 
1 tor the verb; as, Will he go to Baltimore? Must I return home? 

2. In poetic style, the subject is often placed after the verb; as, Loves 
not Gad his creature, man? And this liberty may sometimes be used 
, in prose, but it must be taken carefully .(at)) 

(at>) The collocation of the noun and verb, may be reversed with 
*ery happy effect, if it is done with care and judgment. By reversing* 
the order, the style is kept free from monotony, and rendered pleasant 
and animated. But a too frequent or incautious reversion of the order, 
will produce stiffness and affectation, which are greater blemishes thaa 
monotony itself. 



154 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

VIOLATION OF RULE 1. 

Happy is it for us when we can calmly and deliberately 
look back on the past, and anticipate the future. 

Often ought we to recollect what wise men have said con* 
cerning human happiness and human misery. 

Both were lost his reputation and estate by gaming* 

Much greater gainers are they, than I am by this unex- 
pected mmtt 

With many disappointment! met* tee, and if life eontinue 
we shall meet with many mor@i 

Rule IL 

10. Adnouns belong to nouns expressed or 
understood, which they describe or define, and 
they must, generally, be placed before the noun 
to which they are added; as, A wise man, A 
virtuous woman. But when we wish to ex- 
press emphasis or precision, the adnoun is 
sometimes placed after the noun; as, A man 
wise and good. A woman modest and lovely. 
The man is very wise. 

VIOLATIONS OP RULE 2. 

Tribes of men the most ignorant and the most savage. 

"Spirit Eternal! God of truth! To whom all things seem 
as they are, inspire my song," 

We ought not to entertain prejudices against persons sim* 
pie and rustic. 

Milton the great excels not Homer, 

Washington was a ivise man and patriotic. 

John was a boy good and wim. 

Socrates was a heathen wise and virtuous, 

Alexander was a monarch rash and unfeeling. 

Cyrus was a conqueror wise and humane his actions 
good still speak his praise. 

Rule III. 

11. Adnominal phrases must be placed after 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 155 

the noun to which they are added; as, The es- 
sence of religion is humility and love, 

Note.— The violations of this rule are so glaring, that I deem it mi. 
necessary to give any examples of violations, 

Rule IV. 

12. Adverbs must be placed after verbs in 
the indicative mood, and before verbs in the in- 
finitive mood; as, She writes well Patiently 
to wait. Quietly to hope, &c. 

«J?° te i'~~? he ^ dverb neMr is often P laced before the indicative mood, 
verb of manner may, sometimes, be placed after the infinitive 

violations op rule 4. 

We ought to thankfully receive the many blessings with 
which we are favored. 

Please to interrupt me not. 

We ought to daily improve our precious time. 

To always keep in view the uncertainty of time, is the 
way to rightly estimate it. 

He who virtuously acts deserves praise. 

No sovereign ever was so much beloved by his people. 

He very violently reproached me for my conduct during 
his absence. * 

Rule V. 

13. Adverbal phrases are generally placed 
after the verb or participle to which they are 
added; as, He speaks with great eloquence, 

' But when two phrases belong to the same verb, 
or participle, one is placed before the verb or 
participle, and the other after; as, In the hour 

| of trial the Christian relies- on his God, with 
great steadfastness. 



i 



156 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Rule VI. 

14. When adverbs are added to participles, 
they are placed after the present and before 
the past; as, By living temperately, health is 
preserved. He is much beloved. She was 
greatly admired. 

VIOLATIONS op rule 6. 

He is hated much. 

She is unwisely acting. 

Sinners are entreated earnestly to repent. 

Christians are exhorted earnestly to be steadfast; alway* 
abounding, in the knowledge and love of God. 

Holiness and happiness are connected inseparably. 

The Lord is truly loving to every creature, and his ten- 
der mercies are exhibited hourly, 

Re3J ARK.-*-The rules of position are designed to give the student a 
knowledge of the natural order of composition, from which he may 
sometimes depart With happy effect. (See note av.) My classification of 
the verb into two moods, gives the student an advantage, he has not* 
nor cannot have, by any other mode of classification. It has aJwayi 
been very difficult, for the bestohetoricians to know where to place th* 
adverbs; but my classification enables the student to decide immedi- 
ately. Every verb is either in the indicative or infinitive mood, an4 
#&e adverbs are placed before the one and after the other. 



ELLIPSIS. 
Rule I. 

15. When a noun or pronoun is the agent 
of different verbal affirmations, brought into 
one sentence by connecting words, expressed 
or understood, the agent is omitted before all 
the verbs but the first; as, John went to Bal- 
imore, returned home, became sick and died. 



i 



; 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 157 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE I. 

General Washington conquered his enemies, General 
Washington presided over his friends, and then General 
Washington retired, to enjoy the sweets of rural life. 

Alexander conquered the world, and then Alexander died 
in a fit of drunkenness. 

Hannibal swore eternal enmity to Rome, Reconquered Spain, 
he marched his army over the Alps, he defeated the Roman 
army at Cannae, and would have conquered Rome if the Sen- 
, ate of Carthage had not recalled him. He was defeated by 
Scipio on the plains of Carthage; he afterward commanded 
the fleet of Antiochus, and he at last took poison and died. 

The Lord is good to all his creatures, and the Lord be- 
stows his goodness on all. 

Man sinned against his Maker, and man fell by his trans- 
gression. 

Superstition produces error in religion, and superstition 
preserves error in science. 

The advocates of the prevailing system of philology, do 
not believe the system; but they take it for truth without 
examination. 

Rule If. 

16. Where different descriptive adnouns are 
added to the same noun or pronoun, the noun 
or pronoun is expressed with one and under- 
stood with the others; as, A most tender •, kind 
and faithful husband, A most beautiful, 
amiable, prudent and virtuous wife. 

VIOLATIONS OP HULE 2. 

James was a good boy, a smart boy ,. and a pretty boy. 
He was a kind father, an affectionate father and tender fa- 
ther. 

She was an industrious girl, a quiet girl, and good girl. 
He was an ignorant man, a passionate man, and bad man. 

Note. When we wish tb express emphasis, the ellipsis Ought not to 
|fee used, 

15 



1 58 PHILOSOPHICAL gr AMXAB . 

I 

Rule III. 

17. Where several adnouns with an apos- 
trophe and s, follow each other, the apostrophe 
and s may be omitted after all but the last; as, 
My father, mother and uncle's advice. But 
where some words intervene, the apostrophe 
and & ought to be added to each; as, They had 
the physician's, the apothecary's and the ,^r- 
georts advice. 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 3. 

It was the men's, women's and children's lot to suffer great 
calamity. 

This is John's, Andrew's and William's house. 
My /user's and mother's council. 

Rule IV. 

18. Where possessive pronouns possess dif- 
ferent nouns, they are expressed before the 
first, and omitted before the others; as, My 
shoes and stockings. My book, pen and ink. 
Your house and barn. His sheep and hogs. 

Note, When we wish to express our ideas emphatically, the proDOHa 
must be repeated. 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 4. 

My books and my parchments were all left. 

Thy heart and thy head are both wrong. 

You are bound to love your king and your country. 

Our friends and oar foes both injure us. 

His conscience'and his God both condemn him. 

Her person and her manners are both engaging. 

RrjLE V. 

19. Where adnouns are addedto nouns in ap- 
position, they are expressed before the first, 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 159 

and omitted before the others; as, Washington 
was a great scholar, statesman and general 

VIOLATIONS OP RULE 5. 

Hannibal was the greatest general, the greatest statesman, 
and the greatest financier of olden time. 

General Washigton was a great general and a great states- 
man. 

Alexander was the greatest conqueror and the greatest 
madman the world ever produced. 

Rule VI. 

29. Where a verb has different agents, and 
the same definitive adnoun is added to those 
agents, the adnoun is omitted before all but the 
first; as, The men, women and children were 
present. 

Note. When we wish to express emphasis, the adnouns must be re- 
peated; as, The boys and the girls were to blame. 

Remark. Ellipsis of every kind is unfriendly to emphasis. We can 
seldom express our ideas emphatically, when we use elliptical language. 

VIOLATIONS of rule 6. 

The man and the boy were both there. 
The horses, the sheep and the hogs were sold. 
The years, the months and the days of our earthly pilgri- 
mage will soon close. 

Socrates was a wise and a good heathen. 
Newton was a philosopher and a Christian. 

Rule VII. 

21. Where different simple sentences, having 
the same agent and verb, are brought into one 
by connecting words, the agent and verb are 
omitted in all but the first; as, Thou art 
wretched, and blind, and miserable, and naked. 

Note. If the subject or the verb haB adjuncts, they are alao omitted. 



160 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 7. 

General Jackson is loved by his friends, and he is hated by 
his enemies. 

Wisdom is pure and it is peaceable, it is easy to be entreated r 
if is full -of mercy and it is full oi good fruits. It will humble us 
in prosperity, it will support us in adversity, it will comfort us 
in affliction, it will sustain us in the hour of trial, it will give 
victory in death, and it will exalt us at last to eternal felicity 
at God's right hand. We ought to love her laws, and we 
ought to obey her commands. 

Rule VIII. 

22. Where several verbs, in the infinitive 
mood, are used in succession, the prefix to is 
omitted before all but the first; as, To love and 
fear God is every man's duty. 

VIOLATIONS OF RULE 8. 

To love and to obey God is the duty of man. 

To do good and to communicate forget not, for with sucfe 
sacrifices God is well pleased. 

To fear, to love, to obey and to worship God, is the sure 
way to life. 

Rule IX. 

23. Where different verbs of the indicative 
mood, come together in a sentence, and the 
same adverb is added to each, the adverb is 
omitted after all but the last; as, He teaches 
his pupils to spell, read and write very correct- 

VIOLATIONS OF HULE 9. 

He sits awkwardly, stands awkwardly, and walks awkward - 

He spells badly, reads badly and writes badly. 
The book is printed badly and bound badly. 
The garment was cut badly and made badly. 



I 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 161 

RlTLE X. 

24. Where a preposition has different follow- 
ing objective words, affected by the same verb, 
it is omitted before all but the first; as, He 
made a tour through England, France, Ger- 
many and Italy. 

VIOLATIONS OP RULE 10. 

James went to Baltimore, to Washington and to Richmond. 

John went to the church and to the theatre on the same 
day. 

My brother made a tour through Ohio, through Kentucky 
and through Indiana. 

Rule XL 

25. Where different sentences, having the 
same agent and verb, are brought into a com- 
pound sentence, the conjunction is expressed 
before the last objective word, and understood 
before the others; as, they confessed the wis- 
dom, power, goodness and love of their Cre- 
ator, 

VIOLATIONS OF ETTLK 11. 

The unsanctified heart loves honor and riches and praise, 
and all that the world calls good and great. 

The favor of the Deity gives peace of mind and joy of 
heart and hope of life eternal. 

Sin produces guilt and pain and fear and death. 

Remark. Ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence of the English 
language. The foregoing "kules" are not given as a complete classi- 
fication of this part of Syntax; but it is hoped that they will aid the 
learner to understand this part of grammar. Those who wrote on 
grammar did not see proper to give us any thing like definite rules on 
this subject A desire to reduce science to the methodical arrange- 
ment, which makes the path of the student smooth and agreeable, in- 
duced the author to make an essay toward reducing this part of syntax 
to fixed rule#, 

15* 



162 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

SPECIMENS OF PARSING, 

A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the 
truly pious man. — No. 1. 

A — is an adnoun, because it is added to the noun beam; 
a definitive adnoun, it defines the noun to which it is added, 
Beam»-~ is a noun, because it is the name of a thing; com- 
mon noun, the name of a sort or species of things; third per*- 
son, spoken of; singular number, implies but one, and agent 
of the verb plays. 

Of tranquility — is an adnominal phrase, because it is ad~ 
ed to the noun beam to describe it; it is composed of a prep- 
osition and a noun* 

Often-^\% an adverb, because it is added to the verb plays 
to modify its meaning; a verb of number, it shows the 
frequency of plays. 
Plays — is an adverb, because it signifies action; a regular 
* verb, it forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed; 
indicative mood, it has a personal agent (beam;) present tense^ 
it expresses action bugun^ but not finished; third person sin- 
gular number,, because its agent beam is third person singular 
number, with which it must agree in number and person.- — 
(See rule 1 of Concord.) 

Round — is a preposition, because it shows the relation of 
itself (understood) and heart, the objects of the verb plays* 
i. e. The beam plays (itself) round the heart. 

The — is an adnoun, because it is added to the noun heart? 
definitive adnoun, it defines the noun heart to which it is ad- 
ed. 

Heart — is a* noun, because it is the name of a thing; com- 
mon noun, the name of a sort or species of things; third per- 
son, spoken of; singular number, denotes but one, and object of 
the verb plays, after the preposition round. (Seeprin. 120.) 
Of the truly pious man — is an adnominal phrase, because 
it is added to the noun heart to describe it: it is composed of 
a preposition, three adnouns, (two principal and one helping,) 
and a noun. (See note am.) 

Spirit Eternal! God of Truth! To whom all things seem 
as they are, inspire my song.-— No 2. 

Spirit — is a noun, because it is the name of a thing; com- 
mon noun, the name of a sort or species of things; second 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 163 

person/spoken to; singular number, denotes but one; and inde* 
pendent, because it is directly addressed. (See prin. 22.) 

Eternal — is an adnounj because it is added to the noun 
spirit; descriptive, it describes the noun spirit to which it is 
added; defective, admits not of comparison, because it is un- 
bounded in signification. (See prin. 52.) 

God — is a noun, because it is the name of a person; prop- 
er, the name of the Deity, (god when applied to an idol is a 
common noun;) second person, spoken to; singular number, 
denotes but one; masculine gender, denotes the male sex, and 
independent, because it is directly addressed. (See prin 22.) 

Of truth — is an adnominal phrase, because it is added to 
the noun God to describe it. (See note am.) It is composed 
of a preposition and a noun. 

To — is a preposition, because it shows the relation of them- 
selves understood, and God, represented by the pronoun whom* 
Things seem (themselves,) to whom, (to God.) 

Whom — is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun God; 
third person, spoken of, and objective case, object of the verb 
seem, after the preposition to. (See prin. 120.) 

All — -is an adnoun, added to the noun things; definitive ad 
noun, defines the noun things to which it is added. 

Things — is a noun, because it is the name of things; com- 
mon noun, the name of a sort or species of things; third per* 
son, spoken of; plural number, signifies more than one, and. 
agent of the verb seem. 

Seem — is a verb, because it denotes action; regular verb„ 
forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed; indica- 
tive mood, has a personal agent; present tense, expresses ac- 
tion begun and not finished; third person and plural number, 
because its agent things is, third person and plural number, 
with which it must agree. (See prin. 68 and rule 1 of Con- 
cord.) 

As— is a conjunction, because it connects the sentences,. 
Things seem to God. Things are, (and they seem as they 
are.) 

They — is a pronoun, because it stands for the noun things; 
third person, spoken of; plural number, denotes more than 
one; common gender, denotes either sex, and subjective case, 
because it is the agent of the verb are. 

Are — is a verb, because it denotes action; (see on the verb 
to be, p. 74 — 5;) irregular verb, forms not its past tense by 
adding d or ed; indicative mood, has a peisonal agent; pres- 



164 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

ent tense, expresses action begun and not finished; third per- 
son plural number, because its agent they is third person plu- 
ral, with which it must agree in nfknber and person. 

Inspire — is a verb, because it expresses action; regular 
verb, forms^ its past tense and past participle by adding d; 
infinitive mood, has no personal agent; future tense, express- 
es action yet to commence; it drops the prefix to, because it 
contains the will of a first person addressed to the agency of 
a second — expresses an action, which the first wishes the 
second to perform. (See prin 80.) 

My — is a pronoun, because it stands for the name of the 
speaker; first person, speaking; singular number, denotes 
but onevand possessive case, possesses song. 

Song — is a noun, the name of a thing; common noun, the 
name of a sort or species of things; third person, spoken of; 
singular number, denotes but one; and object of the verb in- 
spire. 

Religion and virtue confer principles of noble independence 
on the mind. — No. 3. 

Religion — is a noun, the name of a thing; a common 
noun, the name of a sort or species of things; third person,, 
spoken of; singular number, implies but one, and agent of 
the verb confers, (confer.) 

And — is a conjunction, because it connects the sentences, 
Religion confers principles on the mind. Virtue confers 
principles on the mind. 

Virtue — is a noun, the name of a thing; common noun, 
the name of a sort or species of things; third person, spoken 
of; singular number, implies but one, and agent of the verb 
confers. (See Rule 4 of Concord.) 

Confer — is a verb, because it denotes action; regular 
verb, forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed; 
indicative mood, has a personal agent; present tense, ex- 
presses action begun and not finished; third person, plural 
number, because it expresses the actions of two agents, (re- 
ligion and virtue,) and contains the affirmative of two dis- 
tinct simple sentences. (See and above.) 

Principles — is a noun, the name of things; common noun, 
the name of a sort or species of things; third person, spoken 
of; plural number, signifies more than one, and object of the 
verb confer. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 165 

Of noble independence — is an adnominal phrase, added 
to the noun principles to describe it. It is composed of a 
preposition, adnoun and noun. 

On — js a preposition, because it shows the relation of 
principles and mind, the objects of the verb confer. 

The — i s an adnoun, added to the noun mind; definitive 
adnoun, it defines the noun mind to which it is added. 

Mind — is a noun, the name of a thing; common noun, the 
name of a sort or species of things; third person, spoken of; 
singular number, denotes but one, and object of the verb 
confer after the preposition on. 

We ought to love God. — No. 4. 

We — is a pronoun, because it stands for the name of the 
persons speaking; first person, speaking; plural number, de~ 
notes more than one, and subjective case, subject of the verb 
ought. 

Ought — is a verb, expresses action; defective verb, it 
wants so me of its moods and tenses; indicative mood, has a 
personal agent; present tense, expresses action begun and 
not finished; first person, plural number, because its agent 
we is first person plural number, with which it must agree. 

To love — is a verb, because it denotes action; regular 
verb, forms its past tense and past participle by adding ed; 
infinitive mood, has no personal agent; future tense, express- 
es action yet to commence. (For the meaning of to see note x*) 

God — is a noun, the name of a person; proper noun, the 
name of the Deity; third person, spoken of; singular num- 
ber, signifies but one; masculine gender, denotes the male 
£ex, and object of the verb to love. 

Man beholds the twinkling stars adorning nighfs blue arch. 

No 5. 

Man — is a noun, the name of a person; common noma, 
the name of a sort of persons; third person, spoken of; sing- 
ular number, signifies but one; masculine gender, denotes 
the male sex, and agent of the verb beholds. 

Behold — is a verb. (See are, specimen No. 2.) 

The-^-is an adnoun. (See the, No. 1.) 

TwinMing^As a participle, because it comes from the 
verb to twinkle, and partakes of the nature of a verb and 



166 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

also of an adnoun; present, because it ends in ing. It 
is added to the noun stars, to describe them, and therefore, 
becomes an adnoun. (See prin. 106.) 

Stars — is a noun, plural number. (See principles, No* 3.) 

Adorning — is a participle, because it comes from the 
verb to adorn, and partakes of the nature of the verb and al- 
so of an adnoun; present participle, it ends in ing; it is ad- 
ded to its agent stars to show what they were doing, when 
man saw them. (See prin. 103.) 

Night's — is a noun, which becomes an adnoun, because it 
is added to the noun arch; descriptive adnoun, it describes 
the noun to which it is added; ends with an apostrophe and 
s, because it describes the noun arch to which it is added, 
by showing its relation to the noun night, from which the 
adnoun night's comes. (See prin. 21.) 

Blue — is an adnoun, added to the noun arch; descriptive 
adnoun, describes the noun arch"; simple state, expresses no 
comparison. Compared, blue, bluer, bluest. 

Arch — is a noun, the name of a thing; common noun, &c» 
(See beam, No. 1.) Object of the participle adorning, (See 
prin. 105.) 

Socrates and Plato were distinguished philosophers, they 
are remembered with pleasing emotions* — No. 6. 

Socrates — is a noun, the name of a person; proper noun T 
the name of an individual parson; third parson, spoken of; 
singular number, denotes but one, and agent of the verb was. 
(See below the sentences connected by and.) 

And — is a conjunction, because it connects the sentences^ 
Socrates was a philosopher. Plato was a philosopher. (See 
conjunctions, note aq.) 

Plato— is a noun. (See Socrates.) 

Were — is a verb, because it denotes action. (See on the 
verb to be, page 74-5.) irregular verb, does not form its 
past tense by adding d or ed; indicative mood, has a person- 
al agent; present tense, denotes action begun but not finish- 
ed; third person, plural numbsr, because it expresses the ac- 
tions of two agents, and contains the affirmations of two dis- 
tinct simple sentences. (See and^ above.) 

Philosophers — is a noun, because it is the name of persons; 
common noun, the name of a sort or species of persons; third 
person, spoken of; plural number, denotes more than one, 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAS. 167 

and agent of the verb were, in apposition with Socrates and 
Plato, because it means the same persons. 

Distinguished — is a participle, derived from the verb to 
distinguish, and partakes of the nature of the verb, and also 
of an adnoun; past participle, it ends in d, and becomes an 
adnoun, because it is added to the noun philosophers to des- 
cribe it. (See prin. 106.) 

They — is a pronoun, because it stands for the nouns Soc- 
rates and Plato; third person, spoken^of; plural number, de- 
notes more than one; common gender, signifies either sex, 
and subjective case, because it is agent of the verb are* 

Are — is a verb, denotes action; (see on the verb to be;) ir- 
regular verb, does not form its past tense by adding d or ed; 
indicative mood, has a personal agent; present tense, denotes 
action begun but not finished; third person, plural number, 
because its agent they, is, third person, plural number, with 
which it must agree. 

Remembered — is a participle, because it is derived from 
the verb to remember, and partakes of the nature of the verb 
and also an adnoun; past participle because it ends in d, and 
denotes finished action; it is added to its objects Socrates and 
Plato to show what is done to them. (See prin 103.) 

With pleasing emotions — is an adverbal phrase, added to 
the past participle remembered; a phrase of manner, it shows 
how the objects to which the participle is added, are remem- 
bered. — It is composed of a preposition, participle and noun. 

I will go to Baltimore* — No. 7. 

J — is a pronoun, stands for the name of the speaker; first 
person, speaking; singular number, denotes but 6ne; com- 
mon gender, denotes either sex, and subjective case, agent of 
the verb will. 

Will — is a verb, denotes action; a defective verb, wants 
the past participle; (see par. p. 98;) indicative mood, has a per- 
sonal agent; present tense, expresses action begun and not 
finished; first person singular number, because its agent I is 
first person singular number, with which it must agree. 

Go — is a verb, expresses action; irregular verb, does not 
form its past tense and past participle by adding d ored; in- 
finitive mood, has no personal agent; future tense, expresses 
action yet to commence; — drops the prefix to, because it fol- 
lows the verb will* (See prin. 80;) i. e. I sow will, to go 

i HEREAFTEB* 



168 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

To — is a preposition, shows the relation of myself under- 
stood and Baltimore, the object of the verb go; i. e. I will go 
(myself) to Baltimore. 

Baltimore— \$ a noun, the name of a place, proper noun, 
the name of a particular place; third person, spoken of; sin- 
gular number, denotes but one, and object of the verb go after 
the preposition to. 



fiRRORS PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. 

"Spirit Eternal! God of truth! To whom all things seem 
m they are, inspire my song." 

To live soberly, righteously and piously, are required of 

all men. 

I could not avoid considering, in some degree, they as en- 
emies to me, and he as a suspicious friend. 

General Washington conquered his enemies, General 
Washington presided over his friends, and then Washing- 
ton retired, to enjoy the sweets of rural life. 

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July, 
1826, were both signers, and firm supporters of the Declar- 
ation of Independence. 

You are bound to love your king and your country. 

Much greater gainers are they, than 1 am, by this unex- 
pected event. . . 

The parent was sorry, but she now rejoices. 

My brother made a tour through Ohio, through Kentucky 
and through Indiana, 

Wisdom, virtue and happiness dwells with the golden me- 
diocrity. , . ■ : , , . . 

She was an industrious girl, a quiet girl, and a good girl. 

A wall fifty foot high, two foot thick, and seventy foot long. 

They who he most injured, he had the greatest reason to 

The years, the months and the days of our earthly pil- 
grimage will soon close. 

He sits awkwardly, stands awkwardly and walks awkward- 

y An orator's tongue ought to be agreeable to the ear of their 
audience. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 169 

We ought to thankfully receive the many blessings with 
which we are favored. 

e Hannibal swore eternal enmity to Rome, he conquered 
fepain, he marched his army over the Alps, he defeated the 
Roman army at Cannae, and would have conquered Rome, if 
the Senate of Carthage had not recalled him. He was de- 
feated by Scipio on the plains of Carthage, he afterward com- 
manded the fleet of Antiochus, and he at last took poison and 
died. r 

Her person and her manners are both engaging. 

Happy is it for us when we can calmly and deliberately 
look back on the past, and anticipate the future. 

Whom went to town? Who did you hear pleading— 
W horn hat is this? Whom horse is that? The God who we 
worship. 

The employments of the busy, the enterprizes of the am* 
bitious, and the exploits of the warlike; the virtues which 
form the happiness, and the vices which occasion ttie miser- 
tes of mankind; all that makes a great figure on the theatre 
of the world, originates in that silent and secret recess of 
thought, which is hidden from every human eye. 

Religion and virtue confers on the mind principles of noble 
independence. 

Take handfulls of ashes and let Moses sprinkle it toward 
heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small 
dust. 

To fear, to love, to obey and to worship God, is the sure 
way to life. 

They who opulence made proud, and who luxury corrupt- 
ed, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 

He was a kind father, an affectionate father and a tender 
father. 

We ought to love God, he who created the heavens and 
the earth. 

She spells badly, reads badly and writes badly. 

He loves I and thou. 

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when 
youth think they have no need of assistance. 

"Janes. book is on the floor. 

It was John, him who preached repentance. 

Who did they entertain so freely? 

Washington was a man -wise and patriotic. 
16 



170 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Newton was a wise, Newton was a learned and Newtois 
was a good man. 

James was a good boy, a smart boy, and a pretty boy. 

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord. 

Often ought we to recollect what wise men have said con- 
cerning human happiness and human misery. 

I have not seen my parents this ten months. 

To do good and to communicate forget not, for with such 
^sacrifices God is well pleased. 

Humility and love constitutes the essence of true religion. 

The court have just ended its session. 

Wisdom is pure and it is peaceable, it is easy to be entreated, 
it is full of mercy and it is full of good fruits. It will humble 
us in prosperity, it will support us in adversity, it will com- 
fort us in affliction, it will sustain us in the hour of trial, it 
will give victory in death, and it will exalt us at last to eter- 
nal felicity at God's right hand. We ought to love her laws, 
and we ought to obey her commands. 

I or thou am the person who must undertake the business 
proposed. 

No one ought to incur censure for being tender of their 
reputation. 

What avails the best sentiments, if people do not live agree- 
ably to them. 

To always keep in view the uncertainty of time, is the 
way to rightly estimate it. 

He was an ignorant man, a passionate man and a bad man. 

The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs uninjured, 
of a sound understanding, of friends and companions, are of- 
ten overlooked, or lightly esteemed, though they constitute a 
great part of human felicity. 

This is John's, Andrew's and William's house. 

The girls was here yesterday. 

All the most important principles of the science of gram- 
mar, was illustrated in the rules of Syntax. 

Hemay be respected, if he becomes more ingenuous. 

Cyrus was a conqueror, wise and humane, his actions good 
speak his praise. 

Christians are exhorted earnestly, to be steadfast; always 
abounding in the work of the Lord. 

Peace and joy is virtue's crown. 

Let love be without dissimulation; abhor that which bt 
evil; cleave to that which be good. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 171 

Love will to live in heaven, when death himself shall die. 

Methodical arrangement smooth the path of the student. 

If this work meets with encouragement, the author will 
continue his philological labors. 

Contentment is riches true. 

This is John book. 

Let me to die the death of the righteous; and let my last end 
he like his. 



PART V. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of Punctuation, Utterance, 
Figures and Versification: hence, in its most 
extensive sense, it embraces all the laws of Elo- 
cution, (aw) 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing composi- 
tion, by points or stops, for the purpose of 
showing more clearly the signification of the 
words, and of noting the different pauses and 
inflections, which the sense and accurate pro- 
nunciation require. 

CHARACTERS USED IN PUNCTUATION. 

Pauses. 

Comma [ , ] is the shortest pause. 

Semicolon [ ; ] is a pause double the length of a comma. 

Colon [:] is a pause double the length, of a semicolon. 

(aw) The pronunciation of words is generally considered, by gram- 
marians, as a part of Prosody. This, I conceive, belongs to Orthoepy, 
where the student will find it fully explained. Prosody, according to 
ray division, treats of punctuation, utterance, figures and versification. 

■ 



172 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAK, 

Period [ . ] is a pause double the length of a colon- 
Dash [ — ] is a pause indefinitely longer than a comma. 

Pauses and Tones. 

Note of Interrogation [ ? ] is a pause equal to a period r 
preceded by an interrogatory tone of voice. 

Note of Exclamation [ ! ] is a pause equal to a period, 
preceded by an exclamatory tone. 

Parentheses ( ) include an explanatory phrase, which 
ought to be pronounced in a higher or lower tone of voice 
than the rest of the sentence* 

There are other characters, which, though they do not 
belong to the punctuation of sentences, yet, as they occur in 
writing and print, ought to be explained to the learner. 

Apostrophe ['] marks an abbreviation: as, '2Ys r for 
It is. Tho? for though. Lov'd for loved. 

A quotation is generally marked by two inverted commas 
[ " ] before, and two apostrophes [ " ] after it. But some- 
times a single inverted comma [ ' ] and apostrophe [ ] mark 
the quotation. 

Marks of accent: acute [ ' ] — grave [ * ]. 

Hyphen [ - ] connects syllables, and sometimes two word* 
into one; as, Day-break. 

Ellipsis [■ -] shows that something was left out design* 

edly; as, M — It — n, for Milton. 

Caret [ ^ ] notes an omission of some word or letter; a% 

of a 
The bark dog* 

A 

Index [GO"] points to something remarkable. 

Brackets [ ] include something which might be omitted,- 
yet ought to be noticed. 

Brace [>v>^\]. is used to connect, intimately, two or more 
lines; as, 

John Smith, ) pi <fr £ Office of the "Coclorus Naviga- 
Amos Little, i rjamtltts - £ tion Co." October 23, 1835. 

References to the margin, * 1 1 II § * ## tt & c » 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 173 

COMMA. 

Rule I. 

A simple sentence, which embraces no important acromi- 
al or adverbal phrase, must not be divided by any point; as, 
Every part of matter swarms with life. But if the sentence 
contains an important adverbal phrase, a comma may be in- 
serted both before and after said phrase; as, I remember, with 
gratitude, his goodness to me. If it contains an important 
adnominal phrase, a comma may be inserted after said phrase, 
and before the verb; as, Grass of an excellent quality, is produ- 
ced in great abundance in the northern regions of our country. 

Note. Adnominal phrases are phrases which are added 
to nouns to describe them, or to point out some peculiarity 
belonging to them. They are often added ta show possess- 
ion; as, "The good taste of the present age, has not allowed 
us to neglect the cultivation of the English language." — 
"When the clause which contains the subject of the verb, is a 
long one," &c. 

Adverbal phrases are phrases which are added to verbs 
or participles to describe some peculiarity of their actions; as, 
His work is, in many respects, imperfect. 

Phrases are called by grammarians, adjuncts. This is 
correct, but they are all added to the noun or verb, and are 
adnominal or adverbal phrases. 

Rule II. 

A noun or pronoun in the independent case, must be separa- 
ted by a comma,, from the rest of the sentence; as, My son, 
give me thy heart. If the noun or pronoun is accompanied 
by other words, those words are separated from the sentence 
with the noun or pronoun; as. The sun being risen, we pur- 
sued our journey. 

Rule III. 

When nouns in apposition are used with adjuncts, they 
must be separated by a comma; as, Paul, the apostle to the 
Gentiles, was eminent for zeal and knowledge. But if they 
are not accompanied with adjuncts, or if they only form a 
proper name, they ought not to be separated; as, Paul the 
apostle suffered martyrdom. 

16* 



174 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Rule IV. 

A phrase or sentence, which is the agent of a verb, must 
be separated from the verb by a comma; as, To be totally 
indifferent to praise or blame, is fi real defect of character. 
If the verb is followed by a phrase, which may, by transposi- 
tion, become the agent of the verb, the phrase must be sep- 
arated from the verb by a comma; as, "The most obvious 
remedy is, to withdraw from all association with bad men." 
(ax) 

Rule V. 

Two or more simple sentences, closely connected in sense, 
or dependent on each other, are separated by a comma; as, 
When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves we leave them. 
The temperate man's pleasures are durable, because they 
are regular* 

Ri/le VL 

Commas must be inserted where conjunctions are under- 
stood; as, The husband, wife and children suffered extremely*, 

Rule. VII. 

When an ellipsis of a verb occurs in a member of a sen- 
tence, a comma should be inserted, if the member expresses 
no comparison; as, "From law arises security; from security, 
curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." Rut if the members 
express comparison, the comma ought to be inserted; as, No 
station is so high, no power so great, no character so un- 
blemished, as to exempt man from the attacks of malice and 
revenge. 

Rule VIII. 

When a verbis divided from its subject by an intervening 
sentence, a comma must follow the subject, and precede th© 
verb; as, James, whom you saw yesterday, is son of Abijah. 

(ax) "To withdraw from all association with bad men," and "rem- 
edy," in the above example, are in apposition — they mean the same 
thing. And whenever a sentence is the subject of a verb, it is in appo- 
sition with some noun expressed or understood. 

The reason the agent must be separated from the verb, in those cases v 
is this, the agent is accompanied with important adjuncts or phrases. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 175 



SEMICOLON, 

When a longer pause than a comma is required, and yet 
the sentence is incomplete, a semicolon may be used,* as, The 
wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation; the 
fool, when he gains the applause of others. And when the 
sense of a period is complete, and something is added as an 
illustration; as, The verb must agree with its agent in num- 
ber and person; as, I love, thou lovest. 

It is also used to separate the members of a sentence, which 
expresses comparison; as, To err is humane; to forgive di- 
vine. 

COLON, 

When the sense of the period is complete, so as to admit of 
a full stop, and something is added as an inference, the colon 
may be inserted; as, "Prosody treats of punctuation, utter- 
ence, figures and versification: hence, in its most extended 
sense, it embraces all the laws of elocution. 

PERIOD, 

A sentence, making in itself complete sense, requires a pe- 
riod after it; as, "Fear God." "Honor the king." The 
period is also used after initials, when used alone; as, A. D. 
for Anno Domini, Q. for question; and after all other abbre- 
viations; as, Col. for Colonel, Mr. for Mister, &c. for et c&t* 
era. 

DASH. 

When a sentence breaks off abruptly, a dash may be inser* 
ted. A dash may also be used when there is a significant 
pause, or unexpected turn of sentiment; as, ''If thou art he, so 
much respected once— but oh! how fallen! how degraded!" 

^Here lies the great — false marble, where? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here." 

INTERROGATION. 

The interrogation is used at the end of interrogatory sen^ 
tences; as, "Who adorns the heavens with exquisite beauty?" 



176 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 



EXCLAMATION. 

The exclamation is used after a sentence which expresses 
sudden emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c, and also after sen- 
tences, which express invocation and address; as, "How much 
vanity in the present lot of man!" Hear me, Lord! for thy 
loving kindness is great. Oh king! Live forever! 

PARENTHESIS. 

When a clause or remark is thrown into a sentence to ex- 
plain or simplify it, which may be left out without injuring 
the sense, or grammatical construction, it ought to be inclu- 
ded in parentheses; as, 

Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below; 
The only point where human bliss stands still, 
And tastes the good without a fall to ill. 

Note. These rules do not point out all the situations in which points 
are used; nor can. any rules be given that will, because different au- 
thors apply them differently, and the same author varies them when he 
wishes to be more or less emphatic. But it is hoped these rules 
may be found sufficient, as a general directory, to preserve the sense,, 
and render the pronunciation distinct and agreeable. 



UTTERANCE. 

Utterance includes Accent, Quantity, Em- 
phasis, Pauses and Tones. 

ACCENT. 

Accent consists of two parts; the first part teaches the true 
pronunciation of words, embracing quantity; and the second 
includes emphasis, pauses and tones. The first part of accent 
belongs to Orthoepy, and the second to Prosody. Orthoe- 
py , teaches the punctuation or words — Prosody, of sentences. 

EMPHASIS. 

By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 177 

by which we distinguish some word or words on which we 
design to lay a peculiar stress, and to show how they affect 
the rest of the sentence; as, His subjects fear, but they do 
not love him. 

Sometimes the emphatic word must be pronounced, in a pe- 
culiar tone of voice, as well as with greater stress. 

Much depends on the right management of the emphasis, 
both as to beauty and force. If no emphasis is placed on the 
important words of a sentence, the discourse will be rendered, 
not only heavy and lifeless, but the meaning often ambiguous. 
If the emphasis is wrong placed, we may pervert and con- 
found the meaning. 

Emphasis is of two kinds, simple and complex. Simple 
emphasis serves to point out the plain meaning of a proposi- 
tion. Complex emphasis, besides the meanings markes also 
some affection or emotion of the mind; or gives a meaning to 
words, which they have not in their usual acceptation. 

The following sentence contains an example of simple em- 
phasis, "And Nathan said unto David thou art the man."— 
The emphasis on thou, serves only to point out the meaning 
of the speaker. But in the sentence "Why will ye die," we 
perceive an emotion of the speaker superadded to the simple 
meaning. 

Emphasis often falls on words in different parts of a com- 
pound sentence, and sometimes on two or three words togeth- 
er, in the same sentence; as, "If you seek to make one rich, 
study not Jo increase his stores, but to diminish his desires.'* 

No fixed rules can be given, to enable the student to place 
the emphasis. His own judgment and taste, improved by 
reading good authors on this subject, must direct him in 
this matter. It rrmy, however, be laid down as a general 
rule, the emphasis falls always on the major section of the 
sentence, because this section contains the important words. 
The speaker or reader, who wish to acquire a proper man- 
agement of the emphasis, must study to attain a just concep- 
tion of the sentiment, he is about to pronounce; and get hi* 
feelings alive to that sentiment. 

PAUSES. 

Pauses or rests in speaking or reading, are a total cessa- 
tion of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a 
measurable space of time. 



178 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Pauses are of two kinds; first, emphatic pauses; and sec- 
ond, such as mark the sense, or the distinctions of the sense. 
An emphatic pause is made after something is said of peculi- 
ar moment, and on which we desire to fjx the attention. — 
Sometimes we make this pause before we say such a thing, 
and thus, usher it in, with a pause of this nature. These 
pauses have the same effect that strong emphasis has; and 
are subject to the same rules* They ought not to be repeat- 
ed too frequently. For as they excite uncommon attention, 
and of course raise expectation, if the importance of the mat- 
ter, is not fully answerable to such expectation, they will oc- 
casion disappointment and disgust. 

t Pauses, which distinguish the sense, are far the most nu- 
merous. Many of these pauses are fixed by punctuation, 
but they often fall where, any point would destroy or injure 
the sense. Those who punctuate by the ear, do often great 
violence to the meaning of the writer; and those who read by 
the point, without making any other pauses, never read ele- 
gantly. 

Pauses, in reading or in public discourse, must be formed 
according to the manner in which we speak in ordinary sen- 
sible conversation; and not according to the stiff artificial 
manner we acquire, from reading books, according to the 
common punctuation. It is not sufficient to attend to the 
points used in printing, for these are far from marking all 
the pauses which ought to be made in speaking. The pri- 
mary use of points is to enable the reader, more easily, to dis- 
cern the grammatical structure; and it is only a secondary 
object, that they regulate the pronunciation. 

To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must not 
only be made in the right place, but also accompanied with a 
proper tone of voice, by which the nature of these pauses 
is intimated, more than by their length, which can seldom 
be exactly measured. Sometimes it is only a slight and 
simple suspension of voice, that is proper. Sometimes 
cadence in the voice is required; and at other times, a pecu- 
liar tone and cadence, which denotes the sense is finished. — 
In all these cases we are to regulate ourselves, by attending 
to the manner in which nature teaches us to speak, when en- 
gaged in real and earnest conversation. 

It is a general rule that a suspending pause should be used 
where the sense is complete; and a closing pause where the 
sense is finished. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 179 

Pauses are used, differently in poetry, from what they are in 
prose, but poetic pauses belong to versification. 

TONES. 

Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses; con- 
sisting in a modulation of the voice, the notes or variations of 
sound, which we employ in expressing our sentiments. Em- 
phasis affects particular words and phrases, with a degree of 
tone or inflecrton of the voice; but tones, peculiarly so called, 
affect sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes even a whole 
discourse. 

Tones show the peculiar emotions of the mind. These 
language cannot show. Language can only lay open the 
ideas which arise in the mind. Tones exhibit the feelings 
which those ideas produce in the soul; and it is the peculiar 
tones of voice, which express those feelings, which give a 
discourse its power and effect. There is not an act of the 
mind, an exertion of the fancy, nor an emotion of the heart, 
which man has not a note in his voice to express; and to ex- 
press, too, in accordance with the degree of internal feeling 
which swells his heart. This may be considered one of the 
high prerogatives of animal intelligence — intelligence and 
sensibility.- And as face answers to face, in a glass, so 
does feeling to feeling, in the human heart; and the speaker, 
who expresses what he feels, in the true tones of natural 
eloquence, will never fail to excite the same feeling in the 
breasts of his audience. No speaker can be successful in 
exciting his audience, who is not natural. The artless ex- 
pression of feeling, either of joy or sorrow, made by the 
little child, finds a more direct access to the heart, than the 
most studied oratory. 

The language of emotion is not so hard to attain as most 
readers imagine. If we enter into the spirit of the author's 
sentiments, as well as into the meaning of his words, we 
shall not fail do deliver ourselves in tones properly varied. 
For there are few people, who have not an accurate use of 
emphasis, pauses and tones, when they utter their sentiments 
in earnest discourse. And the reason why they have not the 
same use of them, in reading the compositions of others, may 
be traced to the very defective and erroneous manner, in 
which the art of reading is taught. Suspending all the va- 
rious natural tones of speech, and supplying a few artificial 



180 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

and unmeaning ones. We must be cautious neither to sup- 
press any thing we feel, nor to try to express any thing we do 
not feel. If we are natural, shunning alike affected indifference, 
and affected feeiing, we will be successful. It is hard to 
decide whether there is more affected insensibility or sensi- 
bility. Be natural, is the medium. 

Public speakers often contract unnatural habits, which are 
very hard to eradicate, and they often think they are natu- 
ral and unaffected, when they are not. Many are much 
embarrassed when they commence speaking in public, and 
these embarrassments cause unnatural tones, and manner of 
expression, which are often highly detrimental. This ought 
to be particularly guarded against, in all young speakers; 
for when habits are formed, they are not easily broken. 
The best way to guard against the formation of these habits 
is this, enter so deeply into the spirit of the subject, as to 
become, in a great degree, insensible for the time being, to 
«very thing else. 

FIGURES. 

^Tropes or figures of speech are departures from simplicity 
of expression. They exhibit the ideas in a more vivid and 
impressive manner than can be done in plain language. — 
They clothe our ideas in living or sensible imagery, by 
which means they make them more interesting and striking. 

The principle figures are Prosopopeia or Personification, 
Apostrophe, Simile, Metaphor, Allegory, Irony, Hyperbole, 
Climax, Antithesis, Metonymy, Synecdoche, Vision, Inter- 
rogation and Exclamation. 

Prosopopeia or personification is bestowing Jife or sen- 
sation on inanimate things; as, "The earth produces her 
fruits," "The sea saw and fled." 

Apostrophe is an address to some person either absent or 
dead, as though he was present, and listening to us. The 
address is frequently made to personified objects; as, O! death 
where is thy sting? O! grave! where is thy victory? 

Simile, is a figure which expresses comparison, and Illus- 
trates the idea we wish to convey, by clothing in some famil- 
liar natural image, as. "As the mountains are round about 
Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people," "He shall 
be like a. tree planted by the rivers of water." 

Metaphor , is a simile without the sign; as, "I will be unto 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 181 

!ier a wall of fire round about, and will be tbe glory in the midst 
of her." This is one of the most common figures, ft is 
very frequently used in the Scriptures. If the above ex- 
ample was expressed by a simile, it would be thus: "I will be 
unto her like a wall of fire round about," &c. 

Allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so con- 
nected in sense, as to form a parable; as, "Thou hast brought 
a vine out of Egypt," &c. Psalm 80, from 8th to 17th verse, 
where the people of Israel are represented under the image 
of a vine. This figure is extensively used in the New Tes- 
tament. Our Saviour imparted his lesson of life, principal- 
ly by Allegories or parables. 

Irony is a figure in which we mean the reverse of what 
we say; as, when the prophet of God said to the prophets of Baal, 
*'Cry aloud for he is a God," &c. There is great force, and 
point in the proper use of this figure. Ironical exhortation 
is a very agreeable kind of figure, which, after having set 
the inconvenience of a thing in the clearest point of light, 
-concludes with a feigned encouragement to pursue it. Ironv 
is more effectual in exposing the follies and vices of man, 
than serious reasoning. 

Hyperbole or exaggeration is a figure, which represents 
things as greater or less, better or worse than they really are; 
as when David said of Saul and Jonathan, " They were swift- 
er than eagles, they were stronger than lions" 

"I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the 
blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon. He sat on the shore, 
iike a cloud of mist on the hills." — Ossian. 

Hyperbolies are of two kinds, 1. Such as are employed 
in descriptions. 2, Such as are suggested by the warmth 
of passion. The errors which frequently occur, in the use 
.of this figure, arise either from overstraining, or from in- 
troducing it on unsuitable occasions. 

We can fix no rules to regulate the use of hyperbolies. — 
Good sense and taste must determine, when the student be- 
comes acquainted with the nature and use of this figure. 

Climax is a figure, which carries us up regularly, to the 
highest point in the subject. Cicero gives a lively instance 
of this figure, where he says, "It is a crime to put a Roman 
citizen in bonds; it is the height of guilt to scourge him; little 
less than'parricide to put him to death. What name then 
shall I give to the act of crucifying him." 

Antithesis is a figure which presents one thing in contra** 
17 



182 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR* 

with another; as, "Think ye that he would desire his broth- 
er to live and yet administer poison." This figure is much 
used, and has a happy effect. It gives strength and clear- 
ness, by contrasting things with their opposites. White, for 
instance, never appears so bright as when opposed to black. 
Crime appears more detestable, when contrasted with the 
strong claims of virtue and innocence. 

Metonomy is a figure which puts the cause for the effect, 
or the effect for the cause; the container for the thing con- 
tained, or the sign for the thing signified; as, Gray hair 
ought to be respected. 

When a whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole r 
this figure is then called Synecdoche or comprehension. 

Synecdoche or comprehension is a figure which describes 
the whole subject by some remarkable part of it; as, when 
we put the head for the person, &c. 

Vision is representing what is past, as present or passing. 
In this figure we use the present tense to represent what is 
passed, or it presents something yet to take place as passing in 
the present time. Thus Cicero, in his fourth oration against 
Cataline: "I seem to myself to see this city, the ornament of 
the earth, and the capital of all nations, suddenly involved in 
one conflagration. I see before me the slaughtered heaps of 
citizens, lying unburied in the midst of their ruined coun- 
try. The furious countenance of Cethegus rising to my 
view, while with a savage joy he is triumphing in your mis- 
ery." 

This figure if properly used, is calculated to impress the 
reader or hearer very strongly. But to use it successfully 
requires a warm imagination, and a happy selection of cir- 
cumstances. 

Interrogation is a figure in which we boldly and forcibly 
affirm or deny, in the form of an interrogation; as, "Am 1 
not free?" "Can the blind see?" 

This figure is very different from an interrogation — the 
asking a question. — It is designed to give force to an affirma- 
tion by asking if the contrary is not impossible. This figure 
gives life and spirit to discourse. 

Exclamation is a figure expressive of sudden or strong 
emotion; as, "O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place 
of way -faring men." 

This figure belongs to strong emotions of the mind. — 
When iudiciouslv employed it agitates the hearer with sim» 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 183 

iiar emotions. But to use it on trivial occasions or on mean 
subjects, is highly improper and often ridiculous. The in- 
experienced speaker often attempts to elevate his language 
by the use of this figure; but rarely or never succeeds. Ex- 
clamation and Apostrophe are frequently used together. 



DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITAL LETTERS. 

We ought to begin with a capital letter: 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. All proper names (or nouns;) as, James, John, &c; and 
common names (or nouns,) when they are personified; as, 
"Come gentle Spring." 

3. The names and appellations of the Deity. 

4. The first word in every line of poetry. 

5. Adnouns derived from proper nouns; as, The Roman 
army. 

6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a com- 
ma. 

7. When we wish to be very emphatic the emphatic word 
must begin with a capital. 

8. And the pronoun /and the interjection O must J>e writ- 
ten in capitals. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Prose is language not restrained to harmonic sounds, or 
to a set number of syllables. 

Verse or poetry is language restrained to a certain number 
of long and short syllables, in every line. And as there are 
but few readers who do not sometimes read poetical compo- 
sition; and as some of the finest sentiments, both moral and 
religious, are expressed in poetry, it is necessary to give the 
student some idea of this part of grammar, that, in reading 
poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, 
and relish its beauties. 

Verse is of two kinds, namely, rhyme and blank verse. 

Where the last syllable of every two lines have the same 



184 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

sound, it is called rhyme. Where this is not the case it is 
called blank verse* 

The parts into which verse is divided are called feet, be- 
cause it is by their aid that the voice pronounces poetry in 
a measured pace; and it is necessary that the syllables 
which mark this regular movement of the voice, should be 
distniguished from the others; this is done by accented and 
unaccented sy Ilable&v 

Every foot has powers peculiar to itself; and it is upon the 
knowledge and right application of those powers, that the 
beauty and effect of numbers chiefly depend. 

Scanning is the measuring or dividing verse into the sever- 
al feet of which it is composed. All -feet* in poetry, consist 
either of two or three syllables, and are reducible to eight 
kinds, four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows: 

Dissyllables. Trisyllables. 

A Trochee ~.o A Dactyl -go 

An Iambus u — An Amphibrach o - ^ 

A Spondee — An Anapaest o o - 

A Pyrrhic ^ ^ A Tribrach v v o 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last 
unaccented; as, "Hateful, pettish." 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
accented; as, "Betray, consist." «. 

A Spondee has both syllables accented; as, "Vain man." 
A Pyrrhic has both syllables unaccented; as, "On the tail 
tree." 

A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last 
unaccented; as, "Laborer." 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccent- 
ed, and the middle one accented; as "Delightful." 

An Anapaest has the two first syllables unaccented, and 
the last accented; as, "Contravene." 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; as, Nu-mer- 
able." 

Iambus, Trochee, Dactyl and Anapaest are called princi- 
pal feet, because some kinds of poetry are composed wholly 
of them. Spondee, Pyrrhic, Amphibrach and Tribrach 
are called secondary, because no kind of verse is or can be 
formed with these alone; their chief use is to diversify the 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 185 

numbers and improve the verse, by being mixed with the 
other feet. The following is an explanation of the principal feet: 

IAMBIC verses may be divided into several species, ac- 
cording to the number of feet or syllables of which they are 
composed. 

1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an 
Iambus, with an additional short syllable; as ; 

Disdaining, 
Complaining, 
Consenting, 
Repenting. 

We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in 
stanzas. The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the 
Amphibrach. 

2. The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be 
continued through any great number of lines. It consists of 
ttvo Iambuses. 

What place is here! 
What scenes appear! 
To me the rose 
No longer glows. 

It sometimes takes, or may take, an additional short sylla- 
ble, making what is called a double ending,- as, 

Upon a mountain 
Beside a fountain* 

3. The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

In places far or near, 
Or famous or obscure, 
Where wholesome is the air ? 
Or where the most impure. 

It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable,* as, 
Our hearts no longer languish. 

4. The fourth form is made up of four Iambuses. 

A nd may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

5. The fifth species of English Iambic, consists of Jive 
Iambuses. 

17* 



ISO PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR 

Howlov'd, howvalu'd once, avails thee not, 
To whom related, or by whom begot, 
A heap of dust alone remains of thee; 
Tis all thou art, and all the proud shall be. 

Be wise to-day, tis madness to defer: 
Next day the fatal precedent will plead; 
Thus on, till wisdom is pushed out of life. 

This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form 
it consists of five Iambuses; but by the admission of other 
feet, as Trochees, Dactyls, Anapaests, &c, it is capable of 
many varieties. Indeed, most of the English common meas- 
ures may be varied in the same way, as well as by the dif- 
ferent position of their pauses. 

6. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called the 
Alexandrine measure. It consists of six Iambuses. 

For thou art but of dust; be humble and be wise. 

The Alexandrine is sometimes introduced into heroic rhyme; 
and when used sparingly, and with judgment, occasions an 
agreeable variety. 

The seas shall waste, the skies in smoke decay, 
Rocks fall to dust, and mountains melt away; 
But fixM his word, his saving pow'r remains: 
Thy realm for ever lasts, thy own Messiah reigns. 

7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure, is 
made up of seven Iambuses. 

The Lord descended from above, 
And bdw'd the heavens high. 

This was anciently written in one line; but it is now bro- 
ken into two; the first containing four feet, and the second 
three: 

When all thy mercies, O my God! 

My rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, Pm lost 

In wonder, love an4 praise. 

In all these measures, the accents are to be placed on evert 
syllables; and every line considered by itself, is, in general, 
more melodious, as this rule is more strictly observed. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 187 

TROCHAIC verse is of several kinds. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language, consists 
of one Trochee and along syllable. 

Tumult cease, 
Sink to peace. 

This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used 
on serious occasions. 

2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists of 
two feet; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for 
any very serious purpose. 

On the mountain 
By a fountain. 

It sometimes contains two feet or trochees, with an additional 
long syllable; as, 

In the days of old 
Fables plainly told. 

3. The third species consist of three trochees; as, 

When our hearts^are mourning; 

or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable; as, 

Restless mortals toil for nought; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought, 
Bliss, a native of the sky r 
Never wanders. Mortals, try; 
There you cannot seek in vain; 
For to seek her is to gain. 

4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trochees; 
as, 

Round us roars the tempest louder. 

This form may take an additional long syllable, as follows: 

Idle after dinner in his chair, 
Sat a farmer, ruddy, fat and fair. 

But this measure is very uncommon. 

5. The fifth Trochaic species is likewise- uncommon. It 
is composed sf five trochees. 



198 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

All that walk on foot or ride in chariots, 
All that dwell in palaces or garrets. 

6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of six 
trochees; as, 

On a mountain, stretch'd beneath a hoary willow, 
Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. 

This seems to be the longest Trochaic line that our lan- 
guage admits. 

In all. these Trochaic measures, the accent is to be placed 
on the odd syllables. 

The DACTYLIC measure being very uncommon, we 
shall give only one example of one species of it: 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
Rise we to higher, &c. 

. ANAPjESTIC verses are divided into several species. 

1. The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single anapaest; 
as, 

But in vain, 

They complain. • 

This measure is, however, ambiguous; for, by laying the 
stress of the voice on the first and third syllables, we might 
make a trochaic. And therefore the first and simplest form 
of our genuine Anapaestic verse, is made up of two Anapaests; 
as, 

But his courage 'gan fail, 

For no arts could avail. 

This form admits of an additional short syllable. 

Then his courage 'gan fail him, 
For no arts could avail him. 

2. The second species consists of three Anapaests. 

ye woods, spread your branches apace; 
To your deepest recesses I fly; 

1 would hide with the beast of the chase; 

I would vanish from every eye. 

This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in 
solemn and cheerful subjects. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 189 

3. The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of 
four Anapaests. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway; 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. 

This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end; as, 

On the warm cheek of youth, smiles and roses are blend- 
ing. 

The preceding are the different kinds of the principal feet, 
in their more simple forms. They are capable of numerous 
variations, by the intermixture of those feet with each other; 
and by the admission of the secondary feet. 

The following lines will serve as an example of different 
poetical feet: 

Spondee, Amphibrach, Dactyl, Iambic. 

Time shakes the sable tyranny of thrones, dec. 

Where is tomorrow? in another world. 

She all night long her amorous descant sung. 

Innii-merabl£ before the Almighty's throne. 

That on weak wings from far pursues your flight. 

POETICAL PAUSES. 

Poetry has two kinds of pauses, sentential and harmonic. 

Sentential pauses are those which the sense requires; as, 
commas, simicolons, &c. 

Harmonic pauses are those which preserve the harmony 
of sound. There are two kinds of harmonic pauses, final 
and cesural. 

The final pause takes place at the end of the line; the 
cesural divides the line into two equal or unequal parts. 
These pauses sometimes agree with the sentential pauses, 
and at other times come where there are no sentential pau- 
ses. The final pause is very important to harmony. By 
neglecting this pause, verse sometimes sounds like prose, 
and strangers to the piece read, would not perceive it was 
poetry; as, in the following lines: 

"Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit of that forbid- 
den tree, whose mortal taste brought death into our world, 



190 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

and all our wo, with loss of Eden, till one greater man re- 
store us, and regain the blissful seat, sing heavenly musei" 

But if this piece is read with the proper harmonic pauses, 
it will sound very differently. 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our wo, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing, heavenly muse! 

Blank verse should be read in such a manner as to make 
every line sensible to the ear, and this cannot be done, if 
strict regard is not paid to the final pause. 

The cesural pause is generally on the fourth, fifth or sixth 
syllable, in heroic verse; as, 

The silver eel" in shining volumes roll'd, 

The yellow carp" in scales bedropp'd with gold. 

On the fifth syllable, or the middle of the third foot, as, 

Round broken columns" clasping ivy twin'd, 
O'er heaps of ruin" stalk'd the stately hind. 

The following couplet has the cesural pause on the sixth 
syllable, or third foot: 

Oh say what stranger cause" yet unexplor'd, 
Could make a gentle belle // reject a lord- 
Where the last words of two lines of poetry, agree or 
harmonize in sound, the lines are called a couplet; and when 
the last words of three lines harmonize, these lines are called 
a triplet. 

This subject might be extended to the harmony, melody 
and expression of verse; but it is not the author's design to 
teach pupils how to make verse, but how to read and under- 
stand it; hence he deems it unnecessary to pursue the sub- 
ject any farther. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 191 

GRAMMATICAL RESOLUTION 

AND SECTIONIZING. 

["The employments (of the busy,) ( ) [the enterprises 
(of the ambitious,) and [the exploits (of the warlike;) ( ) 
[the virtues [which ( ) form the happiness] ( ) and 
[the vices [which ( ) occasion the misery] (of mankind) 

( ) [all ( ) ( ) that (which) make) a great 

figure] (on the theatre) (of the world) originate ( ) 

(in that) (silent) ( ) ( ) and ( )( ) J 

( ) ( ) secret recess of thought ( ) which ( ) 

is ( ) hidden from every mortal eye." (Page 147.) 

This sentence is very difficult to parse philosophically, be- 
cause it is very elliptical, and is compounded of no less than 
eleven simple sentences. 

The agent of the first sentence is employments and the 
verb is originate, i. e. Employments originate. The agent 
of the second, is enterprises. — Enterprises originate. 3. 
Exploits originate. 4. Virtues originate. 5. Vices orig- 
inate. 6. All things originate in silent recess of thought. 7. 
Things originate in secret recess, &e. 8. Which (recess) is 
hidden, &c. The three first agents, employments, enterprises 
and exploits are described byadnominal phrases. Virtues, 
the agent of the fourth sentence is described by the sentence 
which virtues form, &c. The agent of the fifth sentence 
vices, is described by the sentence, which vices form the 
miseries, &c. These two adnominal sentences, (for they 
describe nouns, and are, therefore, entitled to this appella- 
tion,) make ten sentences. And things, the implied 
agent of the sixth sentence, is described by the sentence, which 
thi/Lgs make, &c, which make the eleventh sentence. The 
brackets contain the major sections of the simple sentences, 
and the parentheses, the minor sections. If the student or 
teacher will make himself master of the resolution of this 
sentence, he will find but few, which he will not be able to re- 
solve into simple sentences, and then he will find no difficul- 
ty, in separating the major from the minor sections; and 
when this is done the forms of parsing, given in the speci- 
mens, will enable him to parse the sentence philosophically, 
which is a very different thing, from parsing according to 
Mr. Murray's rules. 

The conjunctions expressed are put in italics, and those 
understood are noted by parentheses; and the elliptical words 



192 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

and phrases are signified by parentheses. Fill up theparen* 
theses and the ellipses will be supplied. 

["If ye love me, [keep my commandments.] 

If is a conjunction, connects the sentences, ct Ye love me." 
"Keep my commandments:" and by its own intrinsic mean* 
ing, as the imperative of giffan gives to those sentences their 
suppositive or conditional meaning. 

The verb love, is in the indicative mood, because it has a 
personal agent, and belongs to present time. If the act of 
love is performed, it is performed in the present, so that 
love is a verb in the present tense; and the conjunc- 
tion if gives it its suppositive character. Keep, in the 
last member of the compound sentence, is a verb in the in- 
finitive mood, because it denotes action to be done hereafter. 
It is used without the sign to because it contains the will of 
a first person addressed to the agency of a second to do the 
act of keeping in future — future to the command understood. 
(See prin. 80, and imperative mood.) 

[The possession (of our senses entire,) (of our limbs unin- 
jured,) (of a sound understanding,) (of friends and companions) 
is (often overlooked) or [ ( )( ) ] (lightly es- 

teemed,) [though it constitutes a (great) part] (of human fe- 
licity.) (Page 147.) 

This sentence contains a singular instance of adnominal 
phrases. - The agent possession is described by four important 
phrases, and also by the participle overlooked. These all form 
the first division of the minor section. (See note 6a.) The ad- 
verb often belongs to overlooked. The major section of this 
sentence is very short. The possession is. All the rest is 
added to show the nature and state of the agent, possession. 
The second simple sentence, in this compound one, is the 
possession is lightly esteemed. The ellipsis of this sentence 
is shown by the parentheses included in the brackets. The 
major section of the sentence is omitted. The agent of this 
sentence is described by the same phrases that the agent of 
the first was, they are understood — not repeated because they 
are still present in the mind. The participle esteemed, modi- 
fied by the adverb lightly, belongs to the agent possession 
understood. The conjunction or gives to this sentence its 
peculiar signification, depending for the certainty of its af- 
firmation, on the negations of the affirmation made in the 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 193 

previous sentence. The third simple sentence requires no 
explanations except the word though. Though is a conjunc- 
tion, and connects, with the foregoing simple sentences, the 
sentence, The possession, &c, constitutes a great part of hu- 
• man happiness, (ay) 

"We ought often to recollect what ( ) ] [wise men said] 

( ) (concerning human happiness) and [. ( ) ( ) 

) H ) E ( ) ] ( (human misery.") (Page 

This sentence though short, contains four distinct affirma- 
twns, and consequently four simple sentences. Thus, 1. 
Wise men said sayings concerning human happiness. 2. 
We ought to reccollect the sayings of wise men concerning 
human happiness. 3. Wise men said sayings concerning 
human misery. 4. We ought to recollect the sayings of 
wise men concerning human misery. 

The brackets include the sentences, and the parentheses 
the words and members of thpse sentences. The major and 
minor sections of those elliptical sentences, are not disting- 
uished by brackets and parentheses, because it might lead to 
confusion, as the sentences are distinguished by brackets. 

The word concerning, in this sentence, is a preposition, de- 
scribes the relation of objective nouns; the noun 'saying, 
understood, and happiness and misery-— this is evident 
from the resolution above. And it is further evident from 
the fact, the preposition about can be substituted for concern^ 

(ay) Simple sentences are often compounded, without the use of con- 
junctions; but when this is the case, the affirmation of the sentence 
remains the same, and the ellipsis is not great. This fact made Mr. 
Murray say, pronouns sometimes connects sentences. 

The principle seems to be this. The sense of those simple sentences 
permits them to unite, so as to form a compound sentence, without the 
intervention of conjunctions. But the meanings of other simple sen- 

' tences, are so foreign or incongruous, that the meaning of some conjunc- 
tion must be interposed to associate their significations, so as to convey 

| their different meanings together. 

Simple sentences, united by conjunctions, are often very elliptical 
i. e. the sentences united with the first. The agents and the adnouns' 
and adnommal phrases, are generally omitted. But sentences which 

l come together, without the intervention of conjunctions, are not so ellip- 

j -tical. If the agent is a pronoun, it is generally expressed, and if it is a 
noun, the noun or some definitive adnoun belonging to the noun is ex 
pressed. Conjunctions may be emphatically termed— word savins- 
invention. 6 

18 



194 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

ing — "What wise men said about human happiness and 
human misery." Another proof that prepositions are 
not distinct from nouns and verbs. 

"Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy 
mother, hind them continually upon thy heart." (p. 150.) 

This sentence contains four simple sentences, or four dis- 
tinct or independent affirmations; as follows; 

[/ command you] (to obey the commandment) (of thy 
mother.) [I command you] (to obey the law) (of thy moth- 
er.) [I command you] (to bind) (the commandment) (of thy 
father) (continually) (upon thy heart.) [I command you] (to 
bind) (the law) (of thy mother) (continually) (upon thy heart.) 

I give, in the resolution of this sentence, the sentences and 
sections filled up. By examining these resolutions and sec- 
tionizings, the student may see how elliptical language is — 
What expedients are resorted to, to enable communication to 
keep up with thought. 

I might add other examples to these here given; but 
enough is said to illustrate the principle. 



KEY. 



Corrections of the errors arranged under the Rules and 
Notes of Syntax. 

Rule 1. [The girls were] (here yesterday.) 

Great pains were taken to little purpose. 

Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. 

What avail the best sentiments, if people do not live 
agreeably to them. 

He dares not act contrary to his instructions. 

The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs uninjured, 
of a sound understanding, of friends and companions, is ollen 
overlooked or lightly esteemed, though it constitutes a 
great part of human felicity. 

The employments of the busy; the enterprizes of the ambi- 
tious, and the exploits of the warlike; the virtues which form 
the happiness, and the vices which occasion the miseries of 
mankind; all that make a great figure on the theatre of the 
world, originate in that silent and secret reces& of thought 
which is bidden from every human eye. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 195 

Note 1. Either thou or I am greatly mistaken, in our judg- 
ment, on thiarsubject. 

I or thou art the person who must undertake the business 
proposed. 

James, thou or John is to blame. 

Note 2. One or both the scholars were present. 

Some parts of the ship and cargo were received; but nei- 
ther the sailors nor the captain were saved. 

Whether one person or more were concerned in the busi- 
ness does not appear. 

The cares of life, or the deceitfulness of riches, choak the 
seed of virtue in many a promising mind. 

Note 3. The church has no power to inflict corporeal pun- 
ishment. 

The people rejoice in that which ought to cause pain. 

The court has just ended its sesion. 

The family were well when we left home. 

The committee were divided in their sentiments. 

Rule 2. That it is our duty to promote the purity of our 
minds and bodies, to be just and kind to our fellow creatures, 
and to be pious and faithful to Him that made us, admits not 
of any doubt, in a rational and well informed mind. 

To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence 
towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, are the sure 
means of becoming peaceful and happy. 

To live soberly, righteously and piously, is required of all 
men. 

To attack vice in the abstract, without touching persons, is 
safe fighting; but it is fighting with shadows. 

That any thing can exist, without existing in space, is to 
my mind incomprehensible. 

To fear no eye, and to suspect no tongne, is the great pre- 
rogative of innocence. 

Rule 3. I saw his brother, him who went to church yester- 
day. 

It was John, he who preached repentence. 

They slew Verius, him who was mentioned' before. 

Adams and Jefferson, they who died on the fourth of July, 
1826, were both signers, and firm supporters of the Declar- 
ation of Independence. 

Augustus, the Roman emperor, he who succeeded Julius 



106 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Caesar, is variously described by historians. 

We ought to love God, him who created the ieavens and 
the earth. 

Rule 4. Idleness and ignorance are the parents of many 
vices. 

Wisdom, virtue and happiness dwell with the golden me- 
diocrity. 

The welfare and security of every society consist in unity* 
What signify the counsel and care of preceptors, when 
youth think they have no need of assistance. 

Religion and virtue confer on the mind principles of noble 
independence- 
Humility and love constitute the essence of true religion* 
Pride and vanity always render their possessor despicable- 
Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy 
mother, bind them continually upon thy heart. 

Rule 5. An orator's tongue ought to be agreeable to the 
ear of his audience. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment and put it on Jacob. 

Take handfulls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle them to- 
ward heaven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and they shall become 
small dust. 

No one ought to incur censure for being tendei of his rep* 
utation. 

Note 1. The child was lost, but he is now found. 
The parent was sorry, but he now rejoices. 

Note 3. Who went to town? Whom did you hear plead- 
ing? Whose hat is this? Whose horse is that? The God 
whom we worship. 

Rule 6. I have not seen my parents these ten months. 

Please to give me those scissors. 

That kind of favors soften and injure the mind. 

A wall fifty feet high, two feet thick and seventy feet long. 

Rule 7. You who were dead he quickened. 
Whom did they entertain so freely? 
They whom opulence made proud, and whom luxury cor- 
rupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 
Him and them we know, but who are ye? 
He invited my brother and me to pay him a visit. 
Whom did they send on that mission? 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 1 97 

He had the greatest reason to love them, whom he most 
injured. 

He loves me and thee. 

Note. The tutor is instructing me and James. 

Esteeming themselves wise they became fools. 

Suspecting not only you, but them also, I was studious to 
avoid all intercourse. 

I could not avoid considering, in some degree, them as ene- 
mies to me, and him as a sucpicions friend. 

, Rule 8. Washington obtained his country's freedom. 

The Christian loves his God. 

Pride and vanity always render their possessor despicable. 

The father gave his inheritance to his son. 

The Saviour of the world gave his life for a world of ene- 
mies; and yet the sinner refuses to give him his heart. 

A virtuous daughter is a comfort to her mother; but a prod- 
igal son breaks the heart of his father. 

Dutiful children obey their parents; but disobedient child- 
ren sin against their God. 

Rule 9. Happy it is. for us, when we can calmly and delib- 
erately look back on the past, and anticipate the future. 

Wo ought often to recollect what wise men said concern- 
ing human happiness and human misery. 

His reputation and estate were both lost by gaming. 

They are much greater gainers than I am, by this unex- 
pected event. 

We met with many disappointments, and if life continue we 
shall meet with many more. 

Rule 10. The most ignorant and savage tribes of men* 

Eternal Spirit! God of truth! To whom all things seem 
as they are, inspire my song. 

We ought not to entertain prejudices against simple and 
rustic persons. 

The great Milton excels not Homer. 

Washington was a wise and patriotic man. 

John was a good and wise boy. 

Alexander was a rash and unfeeling monarch. 

Cyrus was a wise and humane conqueror, his good actions 
speak his praise. 

Rule 11. We ought thankfully to receive the many bless- 
ings with which we are favored. 

Please not to interrupt me. 

18* 



198 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

We ought daily to improve our precious time. 

Always to keep in view the uncertainty of time, is the way 
rightly to estimate it. 

He who acts virtuously deserves praise. 

No sovereign was ever so much beloved by his people. 

He reproached me very violently for my conduct, during 
his absence. 

Rule 14. He is much hated. 

She is acting unwisely. 

Sinners are earnestly entreated to repent. 

Christians are earnestly exhorted to be steadfast; always 
abounding, in the knowledge and love of God. 

Holiness and happiness are inseparably connected. 

The Lord is truly loving to every creature, and his tender 
mercies are hourly exhibited. 

Rule 15. General Washington conquered his enemies, pre- 
sided over his friends, and then retired to enjoy the sweets of 
rural life. 

Alexander conquered the world, and then died in a lit of 
drunkenness. 

Hannibal swore eternal enmity to Rome, conquered Spain, 
marched his army over the Alps, defeated the Roman army 
at Cannae, and would have conquered Rome, if the Senate of 
Carthage had not recalled him. He was defeated by Scipio 
on the plains of Carthage; afterward commanded the fleet of 
Antiochus, and at last took poison and died. 

The Lord is good to all his creatures, and bestows his 
goodness on all. 

Man sinned against his Maker, and fell by his transgres- 
sion. 

Superstition produces error in religion, and preserves er- 
ror in science. 

The advocates of the prevailing system of philology, do 
not believe the system; but take it for truth, without exami- 
nation. 

Rule 16. James was a good, a smart and a pretty boy. 

He was a kind, affectionate and tender father. 

She was an industrious, quiet and good girl. 

He was an ignorant, passionate and bad man. 

Rule 17. It was tfie men, women and children's lot to suf- 
fer great calamity. 

This is John, Andrew and William's house. 
My father and mother's counsel* 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 199 

Rule 18. My books and parchments were all left. 

Thy heart and head are both wrong. 

You are bound to love your king and country. 

Our friends and foes both injure us. 

His conscience and God both condemn him. 

Her person and manners are both engaging. * 

Rule 19. Hannibal was the greatest general, statesman 
and financier of olden time. 

General Washington was a great general and statesman. 

Alexander was the greatest conquerer and madman the 
world ever produced. 

Rule 20. The man and boy were both there. 
The horses, sheep and hogs were sold. 
The years, months and days of our earthly pilgrimage will 
soon close. 

Socrates was a wise and good heathen. 
Newton was a philosopher and Christian. 

Rule 21. General Jackson is loved by his friends, and ha- 
ted by his enemies. 

Wisdom is pure and peaceable, easy to be entreated, full 
of mercy and of good fruits. It will humble us in prosperi- 
ty, support us in adversity, comfort us in affliction, sustain us 
in the hour of trial, give victory in death, and exalt us at 
last to eternal felicity at God's right hand. We ought to 
love her laws, and we ought to obey her commands. 

Rule 22. To love and obey God, is the duty of man. 

To do good and communicate forget not,Yor with such sac- 
rifices God is well pleased. 

To fear, love, obey and worship God, is the sure way to life. 

Rule 23. He sits, stands and walks awkwardly. 

He spells, reads and writes badly. 

The garment was cut and made badly. 

Rule 24. James went to Baltimore, Washington and Rich- 
mond.. 

John w£nt to the church and the theatre on the same day. 

My brother made a tour through Ohio, Kentucky and In- 
diana. 

Rule 25. The unsanctified heart loves honor, riches, praise, 
and all that the world calls good and great. 

The favor of the Deity gives peace of mind, joy of heart 
and hope of life eternal. 



200 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAS. 

HIEROGLYPHICAL KEY 

FOR TEACHING ETYMOLOGY AND PARSING, 

# PART I. 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Q,. (2.) p - s - 9. n - pn - an - v - prt - ad - pr 

8 9 11 1 

c - i. (3) n. (4) ns - 3.k - p - c> cL (9) ns 

12 4 1 

p - n - g. (10) p - n &> pn — v. (11) ns - 2 

i 
ps - 2 - 3. (12, 13, 14,) ns - 2. ns - s - p. p 

- n - f -f s = es - s- n. s - y = i 4- es. s-f 

= v -j- es. s - fe = ve -j- s. sm - wds - ch - 

l 
f - man - men. (15) sm - ns - s - n — p - n, s 

i 

- ns - p - n — s - n. (17 - 18) 3.g - m - f - c. 

1 1113 

(22) ns - a - o - i. (20) n .-}- n - ds - n = an. 

i i l 

(6) p - n - p - n = c - n. a - an or the -j- p - n 

i 
= c- n. 

2 2 2 

(24) pn. (25) pn - p - n - g - c. (26) pn - 
3.ps - 1-2-3. 2.ns-s-p. (28) 3.cs - s 

2 

- p - o. 6.pns - I - thou - he - she - it - who. 
(29) mine - thine - oars - yours - hers - theirs 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 201 

2 2 1 

comp - p - c - pn = pn & n. (42) who . a - v - v 

1 2 

= n = who -p&n. (38) who? = e - pn - 

i 
ans - ?. (s) it = said = ns - m - f - g - p - n. 

3 1 1 3 

(43) an-f n. dsordf- n. (44) 2.k-ans - 

3 1 3 

ds - df. (45) ds - an - ds - n -}-• df - an - df - n 

3 3 

-K (47) ds - ans ^ ex - cm. (48) ds - ans - 

i i 

2 cm - d - ind. (49) d - cm - 2.ns or cl - ns. 

11 3 

ind ^32 ns or cl - ns. (45.) ds - ans - 3k - r - 

3 

ir - dfe. r - ans - f - d - cm -f r or er - more 
or less - ss. ind -j- sf or est - most or least - ss. 

3 

(51) ir - ans - ch - f - wd - good - better - best. 

3 3 3 1 

(52) dfe - ans — cm. (55) an -f an — n -2nd 

3 m 1 3 3 3 3 

- an = n. an -f* an - h - an. (57) ish -}- an 

- ex - v q - no - cm. (59) what = that & 

1 3 3 

which, one & others — n - com - ans = an & 

1 3 

n. (GO), ans - 1. s - cm -f r - er - st or est - ss. 

3 

ans -2-s-y-cn-b-y = i -{- r - er - st or est 



202 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

3 3 

- other - ans - cm - h - ans - more - most or less 

3 1 3 

- least, -f ss. (62) ans -un |ns-s- n. ans 

1 3 

- pi -f ns - p - n. (63) df — h - ans. 

4 4 

(65) v. (67) vs - p - n - m - t. (68) p & 

4 

n^v=a-n-p. (69) 3p - 1-2-3. 2nd-p 

4 

-f st or est. 3rd {- s or th - r - v. vs - 2ns - s - 

4 4 

p. (84) vs 3.k • r • ir - dfe. (85) r - vs - f - p - 

5 4 

t & p prt - f d or ed. (86) ir • vs - £ - not - p - 

5 4 

t & p • prt f d or ed. (87) dfe - vs — mprt- 

4 

(70) m. (71) vs - 2 ms - ind - inf. (72) ind - 
m - p - a. (74) inf - m — p - a. (75) t. (76) 

4 

vs - 3 ts - pr - p - f. (77) pr - t - ex . pr - aet. 

# 
(78) p - 1. ex • p - act. (79) f - 1 - ex - f- act. 

(81, 82, 83) ind - m - 2. ts - p & pr. inf - m - 

4 

It - f. (80) vs - fol - bid . can - do - dare - feel - 
hear - see • let ■ may - must - shall & will — to 
•inf- m. 



PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 203 

5 4 4.3 4 5 

(97) prt — v = v & an. (98) vs. 2. prt • pr 

5 

- ing. p - e - d - 1 or en. (99) pr • prt - ex - pr - 

5 5 

act. (100) p - prt - ex - p - act. (101) prts"== 

4 3 3 1 

vs - de - act & tm. (102) pars = ans f ns - ds 

15 5 

- ns. (103) pr - prt fa- its - act. p - prt j- o 

5 1 13 

- its - act. (106) prt f- n - ds - n = an. 

6 4 5 

(108) ad - cnt-ofwds or sns j- vs or prts * 

4 5 6 13 6 

m - ys or prts. (110) ad j- n = an. (108) ads 

6 4 5 6 

- prr jr h. (109) prn - ad f v or prt. h - ad 

6 6 4 5 

{- ad. (112) ads • m • vs & prts 8 ws - A • n ps 

6 

. t - pi - m - n or. (113) ads J* ex - cm. (114) 

6 

ads - 2 cm. d - ind. (115) d • cm - 2. acts, 
ind ^2. acts, d - cm - f f er - more or less. 
ss. ind • f f est . most or least • ss. (116) ph 

4 5 6 6 

{- v or prt = ad i. e. ad - ph. 

7 7 

(117) pr - sh - rl of o. wds. (120) wd ■ fol • pr 



204 PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

4 7 7 3 1 1 

objt - v - b - pr. (118) pr - an - n &c. f n - ds - 

13 3 

n = an - L e. ad - ph. 

8 8 

(122) c f sns - cs f 2 - or "^2. sm - sns - 

8 

into . 1. cmp - s - n (ap) cs i- sns - 8 ws. 

9 -9 

(124) i. (125) O! alas! ah! &c. (126) i- 
used - i - pns - 2nd p • and o - c - pns. 1st, p - O! 

me! 

Explanation of the characters used in part 1. 
•| means to add. <{ means more. — means less or 
without. = means equal, and where placed between two 
letters or words, means that one letter or word is changed 
into the other. -v means varied. 

Those who may teach the Philosophical Grammar to 
young pupils, will find very great advantage from using the 
key; and those who may have large classes of adults, will 
find an equal benefit. 






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